Research Variables: Independent, Dependent & Confounding

• Research variables are a key component of study
• A variable is a quantity susceptible to fluctuation or change in value or magnitude under different conditions.
• A variable can be represented by Numerical values or categories

Constituent Parts of a Research Title

• Subject Matter should be included
• Locale should be specified
• Population must be defined
• Period of study should be noted
• Purpose of the research should be expressed

Types of Variables

• Independent Variables exist
• Dependent Variables are present

Independent Variables

• Manipulated to cause change in another variable
• Consist of treatments or conditions that produce a varied response or effect
• Chosen by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon

Dependent Variables

• Affected by independent variables
• Observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable as a response variable

Confounding or Extraneous Variables

• Usually indicated in an experimental research
• Not included in the study but can cause an effect (usually minimal) to the dependent variable
• Examples include age, gender, and race

Chapter 1 - The Problem and Its Background

Introduction

• Topic or Subject Matter definition and elaboration is a must using paragraph development
• Importance of the Topic in your life and the benefits are key
• Reasons for Choosing the Topic motivates
• Purpose of the Study discusses the objective

Other Key Factors

• Background of the Study covers statements on what led the researcher to launch the study
• Statement of the Problem is a general statement of the whole problem followed by the specific questions or sub problems
• Significance of the Study includes the rationale, timeliness, and/or relevance
• Scope refers to the range or the outline of the factors to be investigated
• Delimitation defines the boundaries set by the researchers by identifying variables and factors that are not relevant or included

Conceptual Framework

• Serve as a tentative explanation or theoretical explanation of the phenomenon or problem
• Basis for the formulation research hypotheses
• Becomes the central theme or focus of the study and a guide in conducting the investigation

Input Process Output Framework

• INPUT are variables that cause the problem, the phenomenon, or transformation
• PROCESS defines the method by which the variables are collected and synthesized
• OUTPUT is the problem, phenomenon, or transformation; the outcome of the variables

Chapter 2 - Review of Related Literature and Studies

RRL & RRS

• Contain facts with relevant connections to the research topic/problem
• Provide a valuable perspective ascertaining the constructs (structure) of the study
• Show connection of present studies to existing studies with the same structure/problem

Importance

• Identify strategies, procedures, and instruments that have not been found to be effective to avoid other's mistakes
• Avoid unintentional duplication by scrutinizing what has been done by others
• Manage the results of the study itself, whether they would agree or not to such results

RRL - Review of Related Literature

• A detailed summary of previous research related to the topic
• Discusses facts and principles
• Found on printed and published materials

RRS - Review of Related Studies

• Studies, inquiries and investigations already conducted
• Unpublished materials such as manuscripts, theses, and dissertations

Types of Sources

• Primary (firsthand) sources are closest to the point of origin and offer the best and purest data
• Examples of primary sources are Experimentation, Investigation, Interview/Questionnaires, Autobiographies, Report & News Articles
• Secondary Sources (reported) provide a report or testimony of an actual witness
• Examples of secondary sources include History Books & Encyclopedia
• Tertiary Sources are a compilation of secondary source materials with textbooks as an example

Synthesis

• The last part of chapter 2 is a summary and explanation of all the details stated

Definition of Terms

• Terms are defined words or phrases which have special meanings in the study
• The relationship of details to the study must be stated and the significance of the study expressed

Citation

• Giving credit to individuals for their creative and intellectual works that you utilized to support your research
• Use when you use quotes, when you use paraphrase, or when you use an idea that someone else has already used
• Use when you make specific reference to the work of another or when someone else's work has been critical in developing your ideas
• Citations allow your audience to easily find the original source

In-Text Citation

• Text citations occur or are written in the body of the text with direct quotes and paraphrases to identify the author/ publication for the material you have used

Format of APA In-Text Citation

• Parenthetical Citation layout - (Author Surname, Year)
• Narrative Citation layout - Author Surname (Year)

Full Text Citation

• A reference list of the resources that you used when doing your research, including books, journals, or electronic books
• Citations are also required for online sources including websites, blogs, and forums, or conference papers, speeches, proceedings and theses

Basic Rules of Full Text Citation

• Use Hanging Indentation
• All authors' names should be inverted (last names should be provided first)
• Authors' first and middle names should be written as initials
  • If a middle name isn't available, just initialize the authors first name
• Reference list entries should be alphabetized by the last name of the first author of each work
• For multiple articles by the same author, or authors listed in the same order, list the entries in chronological order

Examples

• Books citation layout - Author, A. A. (Year of publication). Title of work. Publisher Name. DOI (if available)
• Online News Article citation layout - Last name, F. M. (Year, Month Date). Title of article. Title of Publication. URL
• YouTube or Other Streaming Video citation layout - Last Name, F.M. [Username]. (Year, Month Date). Title of video [Video] Streaming Service. URL

Chapter 3 - Methodology

Instrumentation

• Constructing research instruments that could be used appropriately in gathering data on the study
• Data can be gathered on research through valid research tools and processes

Types of Instruments

• Questionnaire is a set of orderly arranged questions carefully prepared to answer specific problems of the study
  • Open-ended Questions allow the respondents to freely express themselves on the subject without enumerating alternative processes
  • Fixed-alternative Questions, or closed-type questions, provide a list of choices
• Interview is a face-to-face verbal and direct interaction between the interviewer and the interviewee and supplement the results of the questionnaire
  • Non-Directive Interviewees can talk freely on the topic
  • Standardized Interviews provide the same questions asked to subject without changes on wording
  • Non-Standardized Interviews give specific and varied patterns and arrangements of questions
  • Focused Interviews focus on questions that are to be investigated in depth, to encourage more in-depth questions
• Observation is the process of watching the situation through the use of senses
  • Unstructured Observation provides a richer and more direct description of the subject due to flexibility without using an observation guide
  • Structured Observation analyzes activities pertinent to the study, utilizing a checklist

Population and Sample

• Population is the group of interest for the researchers, consisting of persons that are valid sources of data for the study
• Sample defines the number of respondents who could participate in the study, through valid formulas and effective techniques

Types of Sampling Techniques

• Probability (Participants have equal chance of being selected)

Simple Random Sampling

• "Known and equal” for all members of the population
• Uses Blind Draw Method or Random Numbers Method

Systematic Sampling

• A way to select a probability - based sample from a directory or list
• Samples are selected according to a rule
• Defined target population is ordered and the sample is elected according to position using a skip interval

Cluster Sampling

• A method by which the population is divided into groups (clusters), any of which can be considered a representative sample
• Clusters are mini-populations and therefore heterogeneous
• Once clusters are established a random draw is done to select one (or more) clusters to represent the population)

Stratified Sampling

• Population separated into homogeneous groups/segments/ strata and a sample is taken from each
• Results are then combined to get the picture of the total population

Slovin's Formula

• Equation used to determine the appropriate number of respondents that can generalize or fully represent an entire population.
• Margin of error is to give room for possible miscalculations with 95% confidence, equal to 5% margin of error (0.05)

Definition of Words

• Key terms used in your research paper
  • Technical/Conceptual definition uses the dictionary definition
  • Operational definition defines a word based on its usage in a field of study
• Associative meaning allows researchers to describe in a specific way what they mean when they use a certain term
• Operational is a concrete and measurable definition