Understanding Chromosomes

Chromosomes

• Chromosomes are thread-like structures carrying genes within a cell's nucleus.
• Visible via light microscopy during mitosis metaphase, they vary in shape, size, and number across species.
• Each chromosome comprises protein and a single DNA molecule.
• DNA is the genetic component, carrying instructions crucial for mitosis and meiosis cell divisions.
• Chromosome structure involves tightly wrapping DNA around histones (spool-like proteins). This is essential for fitting DNA inside cells.
• Chromosomes also contain non-histone proteins.

Chromosome Classification

• Viral chromosomes occur singly and may contain DNA or RNA, exemplified by bacteriophage and influenza viruses.
• Prokaryotic chromosomes typically consist of a singular, giant, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule, similar to eukaryotes.
• Eukaryotic chromosomes are enclosed by a nuclear membrane, unlike prokaryotes where they remain free in the cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ structurally, functionally, and organizationally.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus: a circular DNA molecule resides in the nucleoid region without membrane enclosure.
• Eukaryotic cells possess a nucleus surrounded by a double membrane, containing linear DNA with histone proteins.
• Prokaryotic cells have ribosomes for protein synthesis, but these are not membrane-bound.
• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and peroxisomes.

Cell Structure

• A cell has three main components: the cell membrane, the nucleus, and the cytoplasm.
• The cell membrane surrounds the cell and controls substance passage.
• The nucleus contains the nucleolus and most of the cell's DNA, where RNA is made.
• Cytoplasm, a semi-fluid, is external to the nuclear membrane and internal to the cell membrane, forming protoplasm with the nucleus.
• In eukaryotes, the cytoplasm contains all organelles, aiding substance manufacture, distribution, and material exchange.
• Cytoplasm facilitates molecular transport and sugar breakdown (glycolysis).
• Organelles in the cytoplasm include mitochondria for ATP (adenosine triphosphate) synthesis.
• Endoplasmic reticulum in the cytoplasm facilitates lipid and protein synthesis.
• Golgi apparatus in the cytoplasm modifies, packages, and sorts proteins for transport.
• Ribosomes in the cytoplasm, active in all cells, are sites of protein manufacture.
• Manufactured proteins are sent by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to areas that need it.
• The cytoskeleton, also in the cytoplasm is a protein fiber network that gives shape and support.
• Lysosomes and peroxisomes are digestive enzyme sacs for breaking down macromolecules.
• Cytosol in the cytoplasm is the fluid mass that surrounds the various organelles.

Blood Composition

• Blood consists of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements: erythrocytes (RBCs), leucocytes (WBCs), and platelets comprise nearly 45% of blood.
• RBCs lack a nucleus and mitochondria in most mammals and are biconcave, containing haemoglobin, an iron-containing protein that gives blood its color.
• RBCs transport oxygen to tissues, releasing carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation and use O2 in ATP formation.
• RBCs form in the red bone marrow in adults and have an average life span of 120 days before spleen destruction.
• Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, originate from megakaryocytes in bone marrow and release substances for blood coagulation or clotting.
• Normally 1,500,00-3,500,00 platelets mm-3 are in blood
• Platelet reduction can cause clotting disorders.

Body Temperature

• Cold-blooded or ectothermic/poikilothermic animals lack constant body temperature. Their internal temperature fluctuates with the surrounding environment.
• Cold-blooded animals are incapable of regulating internal body temperature (homeostasis), and are dependent on environmental temperatures for metabolic activities.
• Insects, worms, fish, amphibians, and reptiles exemplify cold-blooded animals.
• Mammals and aves (birds) are warm-blooded animals or endotherms that maintain a relatively constant internal temperature regardless of the external environment.

Hayflick Limit

• The Hayflick limit is the maximum number of times a cell can divide.
• This limit, discovered by Leonard Hayflick, is vital in aging and age-related disease development.
• Cell division stops after 40-60 times in somatic (non-reproductive) cells, causing aging as senescent cells accumulate.
• The "ultimate Hayflick limit" is around 125 years for humans, beyond which lifespan can't be extended by diet, exercise, or genetic tweaking against diseases.

Ultra-Processed Foods

• Ultra-processed foods are heavily modified, containing fats, starches, added sugars, hydrogenated fats, and artificial additives: colors, flavors, and stabilizers.
• Examples: frozen meals, soft drinks, processed meats, fast food, packaged cookies, cakes, salty snacks, ice cream, sausages, crisps, fizzy drinks, and instant soups.
• Risks: increased cancer and heart disease, obesity, and diabetes.
• Ultra-processed foods contribute to obesity, which affects 27.8% of Indian adults.

Glycemic Index

• Professor David Jenkins of the University of Toronto introduced the Glycemic Index in 1981.
• The glycemic index or GI refers to food's ability to increase blood glucose level and measures carbohydrate quality.
• Glucose or white bread is used as a comparator.
• Glucose's GI is 100 percentage the GI of other foods.
• GI is classified as low (less than 55), medium (56-69), and high (over 70).
• The glycemic load (GL) is determined by multiplying the GI by the amount of carbohydrate consumed.

Hemoglobin

• Hemoglobin (Hb) is an iron-containing protein in red blood cells (RBCs) that transport oxygen from lungs to tissues, and carbon dioxide back.
• Haemoglobin comprises four polypeptide chains or globulin chains connected to a heme iron molecule.
• Haemoglobin forms an unstable reversible bond with oxygen and is called oxyhemoglobin, bright red in the oxygenated state, becoming purplish blue in the reduced state, binding and releasing O2 based on partial pressure.
• Haemoglobin aids chondrocytes to transport O2 within the cells in hypoxia conditions and maintains the shape of RBCs.
• Men typically have higher hemoglobin levels than women.
• Low hemoglobin indicates anemia or a low red blood count.
• Women's mean levels are approximately 12% lower than men.

Cell-free DNA

• In the human body, most of the DNA in a genome is neatly packed inside cells with the help of specific proteins.
• In the body, some fragments of DNA are released from cells and present outside the cell, in body fluids. These fragments are widely known as cell-free DNA (cfDNA).
• Cell free DNA can be generated and released from several cell events, including cell death. The release of cfDNA is related to the development of certain cancers and Autoimmune diseases and is observed under normal conditions.
• Cell free DNA testing analyzes free DNA in a biological sample for any hereditary/ genetic disorder.
• Prenatal cell-free DNA testing detects chromosomal abnormalities in fetus: examines naturally present fetal DNA in the maternal bloodstream. The test is almost 99% accurate for trisomy 21 or Down's syndrome.

Parthenogenesis

• Parthenogenesis gives rise to an embryo from a female gamete without any male gene component, which can later become an adult. The egg can develop into an embryo without being fertilized by a sperm.
• Parthenogenesis can give rise to stem cells: Human stem cells from embryos, foetal primordial germ cells, umbilical cord blood, and adult tissues provide prospective cell-based therapies for mending degenerating or damaged tissues.
• With egg cells, the physical processes of parthenogenesis can be induced by temperature and electrical shocks, or chemically by chloroform.
• Parthenogenesis expands population more quickly than sexual reproduction and create clones.
• All frogs reproduce sexually, and all hatch from eggs.

Xenotransplantation

• Xenotransplantation treats medical conditions in humans using non-human cells, tissues, or organs.
• Research has transferred vital organs, such as the kidney, heart, or liver, from one animal to another. Some research has also used animal cells or tissues to treat serious conditions like epilepsy.
• Huntington's disease (HD) gradually breaks down nerve cells or neurons in parts of the brain. Parkinson's disease causes uncontrollable movements.
• Genetically modified pigs are raised in a laboratory with their genes edited to match human genes that can lower the risk of rejection in humans.
• Xenotransplant recipients will need to take anti-rejection medications.

Protein Subunit Vaccines

• Protein subunit vaccines use fragments of protein from disease-causing virus to trigger protective immunity.
• Rather than injecting a whole pathogen to trigger an immune response, Subunit vaccines contain purified pieces specially selected for stimulating immune cells.
• Protein Subunit vaccines are safe due to fragments incompability of causing disease.
• Subunit vaccines are more expensive and require substrates to avoid contamination during growing.

Expanded Programme on Immunization

• The World Health Organization launched the Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) in 1974 to ensure equal access to life-saving vaccines for each child.
• In 2024, the 50th anniversary year of EPI, there are 13 vaccines or antigens recommended by WHO for the program.
• There are also vaccines recommended for particular settings, Yellow fever, Meningitis, Japanese encephalitis (JE) and Cholera.

Genome India Project

• The Department of Biotechnology initiated the Genome India Project or GIP in 2020. This accomplishment is set to advance research in personalized medicine, disease prevention, and the evolution of targeted therapies.
• It facilitates more large-scale genetic studies.
• The Genome India project involves cataloguing the genetic variation in Indians is a pan-India project that whole genome sequences of representative populations.
• It establishes a biobank for DNA/ plasma to use in research.

Medical Treatments

• The BPaL regimen treats when TB becomes resistant to isoniazid, rifampin and at least one fluoroquinolone or injectable.
• In immunotherapy for multiple myeloma patients, the CAR T-cell is an option if there isn't positive results or relapse with a previous cancer regime
• Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) treats people with HIV using anti-HIV drugs. (HAART) that suppress HIV replication.
• Radiation therapy, also called radiotherapy, uses beams of intense energy to kill cancer cells.

Tummor treatments

• Multiple myeloma the patient's abnormal white blood cells build up and form tumors in the bones. These treatments typically work for only a few months and can cause many side effects.
• The bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis commonly attacks the lungs, this bacterium is called (TB) The bacteria can attack any part of the body such as the kidney, spine and brain.

Plant and Animal Cells Differences

• Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts and other specialized plastids and a large centroile whille it is not found in an animal cell.
• Animal cells each have one centrosome and lysosome.
• Plant cells chloroplasts are responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.

Organelle Locations

• Within the cell, ribosomes exist not only in the cytoplasm but also within the two organelles chloroplasts (in plants) and mitochondria.
• The nuclear membrane resides in eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotes are cell have something unique In the form of inclusions.
• specialized differentiated form of cell membrane called mesosome This is a characteristic of prokaryotes.
• Plastics are found in all plant cells and in euglenoides.
• The genome is the set of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA instructions for cells
• The Genome in humans the genome has 23 chromosomes located in the nucleus

Reference Genomes

• If genomes are not newly sequence they are compared to a reference map called a genome. this helps us to understand the regions of differences between the newly and the reference genome.
• the p an genome is unlike the reference which is a linear sequence the p an genome is a graph in each chromosome.

Recombinant DNA

• procedures Analysing or combining DNA fragments for one or more reasons for example for reapplication or integration into a genome.
• gene cloning/use creates isolation this overcomes this limitation introducing on or set desirable genes
• important role Advancement in medicines the productions for medicine. Recombinant vaccines can be used to deliver vaccines.
• Molecular diagnose it’s helpful for detecting diseases.
• Agricultural that’s a used to genetically modify crops that can resist pets.
• Industrial uses of recombinant enzymes produce important chemicals
• Bioremediation and environmental Protection the environmental bacteria filament removed heavy medals
• targeted delivery precisely targeting tissue and minimising the side effects.

Messenger RNA

• A form of nucleic acid helps with how to deal with information containing dna Temporary piece that can create a protein or repair damage Not rely to modify a virus to produce immune reposes

Casgevy uses cells in gene therapy

• uses CRISPER it is approved for treatment and patients
• it’s works by editing a patients blood stem cells from hemoglobin
• changes red blood in the cell allowing cells go back after treatment the sickle and crescent will disappear

Chromosomal Definitions

• The female reproductive part of the Gynocim the three parts of the stigma and style ovar. in the ovary you find the ovules attached to the placenta.
• Xylem transports the water and minerals from the roots to the stem.
• Phloem transport from one place to another Enzymes or energy that are in food and how much energy is deternming in a food. calorie value is one example

vaccine types

• first Vaccines use the live ( or weakened) or killed (Inactivated) pathogens used to induce immunity. may give side effects. Ex: the smallpox vaccine, the rabbies vaccine or the poly vaccine. that helps. Ex: the smallpox vaccine, the rabbies vaccine or the poly vaccine.
• Second vaccine use proteins that are used for induce immunity are more specific for pathogens . Hepatitis and vaccines in that type the thrid genaration use technologies to become safer then previous gens. DNA and MRNa A patent rights were a product/process in doing technical for solution the evergreening for patents for drugs for increasing and extend term profits

the original act (in India)

• Does not give protection pharmaceutical medication to make avalibality for large numbers at low costs. that act was made in 1959 india follows the patents
• medicines/ drugs cannot be patents if is a known substance which does not result known efficiency of the substance.

stemm cells

• undifferentiated means not specialized cells in the body divide can be given from an embryo, Bone marrow in adults/
• There are no totipotent cell in stem cells only can produce cells types from the bodies and its developing

stem cell classification

• totipotent: theses cells will differentiate into cell production
• pluripotent: these cells can only be turned into any cell from the early embryo
• multipotent: theses cells can relate to an family of cells that gives red and platelets : oligopotent: can differentiate into cell types like adult lymph unipotent: can only to produce cells which is their own type.

Reflection

change in the direction of a wavefront back into its original mediums Angle reflection and incidence. refraction

• Bending a wave when getting into 1/3 mediums speed depends between 2 mediums.
• The bending of light is around an substance relative of wavelength or openings of light

Health explanations

• legionnaires Pneumonia which can cause interact bacteria like water and soil. If it is not treated right they can die menogocical : rare illness and the bacatera can cause death in a the day and leads to a disabilities varciailella a chicken has infections is the dna cells or viruses . Pompe: rare genetic for enzymic activity .

 genetic engineered food

• BT is for a bacterium or virus of some type .Bollgard brand market cotton.

the description of some features

• 1. speeds which is less in ✈️ 2.Depends that’s why various different medicas are
• 3 decreasing states
• 4 slowly,gasses 5.depend the density.the speed depends on various medicos 6 humidity speed is increases speed 7 the lower, the slowing. 8 sound speed does not happen due to presence at partical vacurm 9 gases speeds are irresective of the medium

the speed of liquid in sound

Density is less the soliders and higher this this speeds is liquid in lying betweens acids or the bases

the speed in sound

The solids more density has so atoms which sounds can travel more fast

Bottlenose Dolphin Mothers Talk to Calves

• A recent study has discovered that bottlenose mothers have a unique way of communicating with their baby. Like the concept of "baby-talking" observed in human caregivers, These unique actions include intelligently modifying their signature whistles when speaking to offspring.

Roundworms Can Survive Ice Ages

• Researchers have successfully revived a roundworm that had been dormant for 46,000 years. It survived in something called cryptosiosis, which is basically suspended animation of the body.

Unified Genomic Chip

• India launched the "Unified Genomic Chip", which was meant to launch Indian farmers into dairy farming fame!

Antimicrobial Resistance

• Antimicrobial resistance threatens the prevention and treatment of ever-growing resistant infections by bacteria.

Nerve System

• The nerve system can be made in parts such as with two different kinds of similarities

1. The triggered or lead infections nervous
2. GBs system is in the weakness , paralysation , and altered consciousness. can be confirm with MRI if show similar levels of GBS. Respond well to intravenous exchange treatment.

Vector born disease

• The diseases spread and is transmitted such as the mosquito Aedes ,and Vector.

Real time data

• Bioensors equipped the accelerate. estimate calorie and psysilogival parameters levels.is Wearable biosensors such detectors

Biotechnologies

• White can produce such the detergents paper and more materials in 1/3 DNA fingerprinting can be of used it can be of paternity