Understanding Carbohydrates and Their Classification

Cx(H2O)y, where x and y are integers; CxHyOz.

Simple sugars that cannot be broken down into simpler sugars.

Two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage.

Sugars with a free anomeric carbon that can reduce other compounds.

A type of monosaccharide with a terminal carbonyl group (aldehyde).

A type of monosaccharide with a middle carbonyl group (ketone).

A covalent bond that links two monosaccharides to form a disaccharide or polysaccharide.

Long chains of monosaccharides.

Sugars that do not have a free aldehyde or ketone group and cannot reduce other compounds.

A metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing ATP and NADH.

A genetic disorder affecting galactose metabolism, often causing infant health issues.

A genetic disorder causing fructose to be present in the urine due to a deficiency in the enzyme fructokinase.

A genetic disorder impairing fructose metabolism in liver, kidney and intestine, leading to severe symptoms.

A genetic disorder affecting fructose-1,6-biphosphate, leading to issues in glucose production.

An enzyme that breaks down complex carbohydrates into smaller sugars.

A glycogen storage disease caused by a deficiency in glucose-6-phosphatase, leading to severe fasting hypoglycemia, lactic acidosis, and glycogen accumulation in organs.

A glycogen storage disease caused by a deficiency in α-1,4-glucosidase, resulting in glycogen accumulation, particularly in muscle tissue.

A glycogen storage disease characterized by a deficiency in the debrancher enzyme, leading to glycogen accumulation and liver enlargement.

A glycogen storage disease caused by a lack of the brancher enzyme, leading to unbranched glycogen accumulation.

A condition characterized by abnormally low blood glucose levels, typically below 65-70 mg/dL.

Symptoms of hypoglycemia related to the nervous system, including tremors, palpitations, anxiety, and sweating.

Symptoms of hypoglycemia related to the brain's lack of glucose, including dizziness, tingling, blurred vision, confusion, and behavioral changes.

A diagnostic test for hypoglycemia involving a 72-hour fast with glucose, insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin levels measured every 6 hours.

A method for measuring glucose in CSF that involves the enzyme glucose oxidase. It's commonly used but can be inhibited by substances like uric acid, vitamin C, and bilirubin.

The reference method for measuring glucose, considered more accurate than oxidase methods. It's based on the enzyme hexokinase and involves measuring the formation of NADPH.

Molecules produced by the liver when the body needs energy from stored fat, especially during low carbohydrate availability.

High levels of ketone bodies in the blood.

Presence of ketone bodies in the urine.

High ketone levels can be caused by diabetes mellitus, starvation, high-fat diets, prolonged vomiting, and glycogen storage diseases.

Measuring ketone levels is recommended for patients with Type 1 Diabetes during acute illness, stress, pregnancy, or elevated blood glucose levels, as it can indicate ketoacidosis.

Fresh serum or urine is used for ketone testing; the urine sample should be tightly stoppered and analyzed immediately.

A hormonal disorder characterized by excess cortisol production, leading to various symptoms like weight gain, high blood pressure, and muscle weakness.

A tumor in the adrenal gland that produces excessive epinephrine and norepinephrine, causing high blood pressure, rapid heart rate, and anxiety.

A hormonal disorder characterized by excess growth hormone, leading to enlarged hands, feet, and jaw.

A condition where glucose intolerance develops during pregnancy, often due to hormonal changes.

Symptoms of diabetes include increased thirst, frequent urination, excessive hunger, weight loss, fatigue, blurred vision, and slow-healing sores.

A measure of blood glucose levels after an overnight fast, used to diagnose diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, or normal glucose levels.

A blood test that measures the average blood sugar level over the past 2-3 months, indicating long-term blood sugar control.

The presence of small amounts of protein in the urine, an early sign of kidney damage in diabetic patients.

A peptide that is released along with insulin from the pancreas, reflecting how well the pancreas is producing insulin.

A chemical method for measuring ALL REDUCING SUBSTANCES in the blood using Cupric ion reduction and phosphomolybdic acid as a reagent.