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Questions and Answers

Which process demonstrates the distinction between awareness and controllability?

  • Physiological processes
  • Subliminal priming
  • Perceptual illusions (correct)
  • Unconscious emotions

    • What kind of stimuli involves presenting stimuli below the threshold for conscious awareness?

  • Conscious stimuli
  • Behavioral priming
  • Perceptual stimuli
  • Subliminal priming (correct)

    • What did subsequent research in the 2010s reveal about the findings of studies in the 1990s regarding stimuli outside of awareness?

  • The findings were disregarded due to biased replication studies
  • Many of these findings could not be replicated in unbiased replication studies (correct)
  • The findings were proven to be accurate
  • The effects of stimuli were found to be even more powerful than initially thought

    • What method do advertising agencies use to manipulate behavior with stimuli in the focus of attention?

    <p>Clip-bait</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does awareness of being manipulated not necessarily make individuals?

    <p>Immune to manipulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of processes can have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, even when we are aware of them?

    <p>Other</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the distinction between conscious and unconscious processes?

    <p>Conscious processes are characterized by awareness, while unconscious processes may influence behavior without awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way can unconscious processes influence behavior, according to the text?

    <p>Unconscious processes can affect behaviors and feelings without the individual's awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What example illustrates a situation where an individual is aware of the causes of their behavior?

    <p>&quot;Why did you drink water? Because I was thirsty.&quot;</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor may influence behavior without individuals being aware of it, as mentioned in the text?

    <p>Viral infection affecting energy levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text imply about the accessibility of certain processes to consciousness?

    <p>Some processes may or may not be accessible to consciousness, regardless of their potential influence on behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "Even if we are not aware of the taste of the food, it might influence our behavior" - What does this statement emphasize about unconscious influences?

    <p>Unconscious influences can still impact behavior even if they are not consciously perceived.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    "How did you calculate 99*13? I first multiplied 13 by 100 and then subtracted 13 to get 1287." - What does this example illustrate about cognition?

    <p>$99*13$ calculation involves a conscious and deliberate thought process.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way can an individual's feelings be influenced without their awareness?

    <p>By factors such as viral infection affecting mood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor illustrates a situation where an individual's behavior may be influenced without their awareness?

    <p>Paying close attention to taste of food and ignoring conversation at a dinner party</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text imply about the relationship between awareness and motives influencing actions?

    <p>Awareness of motives can vary in different situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way can unconscious processes affect an individual's behavior and feelings?

    <p>Unconsciously influencing behaviors and feelings without conscious awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used for self-ratings that require participants to be aware of the meaning of questions and to draw on consciously accessible information?

    <p>Explicit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When were the first implicit measures of personality developed?

    <p>1930s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the aim of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

    <p>To measure unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the content of stories in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) reflect?

    <p>Unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'implicit' contrast with in psychological science?

    <p>'Conscious'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?

    <p>They are not consciously accessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do projective tests aim to measure?

    <p>Unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

    <p>Unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'implicit' mean in contrast to 'explicit'?

    <p>'Conscious'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?

    <p>They are not consciously accessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do projective tests aim to measure?

    <p>Unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

    <p>Unconscious motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a concern related to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

    <p>Low retest reliability and weak correlation with self-report measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What contributes to the low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures?

    <p>Invalid self-report measures, invalid TAT scores, or the TAT measuring unconscious aspects of achievement motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a challenge associated with implicit motives measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?

    <p>Low convergent validity as measures of implicit motives for power, achievement, and affiliation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been proposed as a solution to the time-consuming nature of coding open responses for implicit motives?

    <p>An automated scoring system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What method does the Implicit Motive Test (IMT) use to measure implicit motives?

    <p>Word frequencies in stories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of words are power motives related to in the Implicit Motive Test (IMT)?

    <p>More anger words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a claim made about the Implicit Association Test (IAT)?

    <p>It promised to measure individual differences in unconscious processes more quickly and easily than the TAT.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did the Implicit Association Test (IAT) gain popularity?

    <p>Due to its availability to the general public and its use as a measure of depression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is still being investigated regarding the validity of IAT scores?

    <p>The validity of IAT scores.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a drawback mentioned about research on implicit motives with projective tests like the TAT?

    <p>Labor-intensive with low reliability and validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the correlation between IAT scores and explicit measures?

    <p>The correlation between IAT scores and explicit measures varies across different topics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text imply about the validity of IAT scores as measures of some personality attributes?

    <p>IAT scores can be valid measures of some personality attributes, but these attributes are not implicit or outside of awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text indicate about the correlation between explicit self-esteem measures and scores on a self-esteem IAT?

    <p>There is hardly any correlation between explicit self-esteem measures and scores on a self-esteem IAT.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the relationship between measurement error and deviations in IAT scores from explicit beliefs?

    <p>Deviations in IAT scores from explicit beliefs are most likely due to measurement error.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the validity of IAT as a measure for political orientation?

    <p>There is no unique information in a political orientation IAT compared to explicit measures of political orientation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text imply about the relationship between IAT scores and implicit attributes?

    <p>IAT scores can be valid measures of some personality attributes, but these attributes are not implicit or outside of awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about the correlation between IAT scores and other implicit self-esteem measures?

    <p>IAT scores were negatively related to scores on the other four implicit measures of self-esteem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about the cultural differences in self-esteem IAT scores between US and Japanese participants?

    <p>No differences in self-esteem IAT scores were found between US and Japanese participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about the validity of IAT scores for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness?

    <p>IAT scores have low validity for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about the convergent validity of IAT scores with other implicit measures?

    <p>IAT scores have low convergent validity with other implicit measures and low correlations with non-self-report measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study suggest about the ability of IAT to provide insight into unconscious aspects of personality?

    <p>The IAT fails to provide a window into unconscious aspects of our personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was found about the relationship between self-perceptions and true personality?

    <p>There is a gap between self-perceptions and true personality, with only moderate self-informant agreement in ratings of numerous traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was observed about the reliance on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems?

    <p>Numerous articles relied on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of errors in self-perceptions are suggested to be systematic and influenced by a motive to feel good about ourselves?

    <p>Errors attributing failures to external circumstances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe in, despite evidence of fraud and corruption?

    <p>A just world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do most researchers agree about the extent of positive illusions in individuals?

    <p>Individuals differ in the extent to which they have positive illusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?

    <p>Positive illusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?

    <p>The unique variance in self-ratings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested by numerous lines of research about errors in our self-perceptions?

    <p>Errors are systematic and influenced by motives</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Lerner (1977), what may some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe despite evidence of fraud and corruption?

    <p>A just world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do most researchers agree on regarding positive illusions?

    <p>Individuals differ in the extent to which they have positive illusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Taylor & Brown (1988), what do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?

    <p>Positive illusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?

    <p>The unique variance in self-ratings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is self-enhancement in the context of self-knowledge?

    <p>Individuals inflate their own positive attributes, but not the attributes of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason for overly positive views of the self mentioned in the text?

    <p>A general positivity bias in perceptions of oneself, others, and the world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a challenge in studying self-enhancement?

    <p>The measurement of individuals' true personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what context was the term 'self-enhancement' used by Schwartz?

    <p>To describe individuals who seek power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What solution to the problem of measuring self-enhancement is suggested in the text?

    <p>Focusing on performance on tasks with objective performance criteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does self-enhancement mean in the context of attractiveness?

    <p>Individuals rate their attractiveness higher than others rate their attractiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is distinct from self-enhancement according to the text?

    <p>Negative perceptions of others to feel better about oneself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What makes measuring individuals' true personality difficult according to the text?

    <p>The lack of highly valid, objective measures for personality attributes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does self-enhancement involve according to the text?

    <p>Inflating one's own positive attributes, but not those of others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do psychologists use the term 'self-enhancement' to describe?

    <p>Individuals who exaggerate and emphasize their positive attributes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about how close others perceive narcissists?

    <p>As more extraverted and less agreeable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about narcissists' self-ratings compared to how others perceive them?

    <p>Narcissists rate themselves higher in most traits than how others perceive them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What explanation does the text provide for why people have biases despite being partially aware of them?

    <p>Concepts are not clearly defined and there is no clear objective criterion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might individuals rate themselves as attractive despite being aware of discrimination based on certain attributes like skin tone?

    <p>They may reject norms of attractiveness based on certain attributes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the reduction of biases in narcissists when asked to rate how others see them?

    <p>The biases are reduced but not fully eliminated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text imply about narcissists' likelihood to accept and conform to social norms?

    <p>They are more likely to accept and conform to social norms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What trait is positively correlated with overestimation of academic abilities compared to standardized test scores and high school GPAs?

    <p>Narcissism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which trait do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?

    <p>Intelligence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about positive biases in self-ratings over time?

    <p>They are stable over months and correlate with narcissism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about cultural differences in positive biases in self-ratings?

    <p>Positive biases are stronger in North America than in Asia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of traits do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?

    <p>Extraversion and attractiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the study indicate about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?

    <p>There is no significant difference between individuals' self-ratings and ratings of friends or family members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was found about the relationship between positive biases on one Big Five dimension and positive biases on other dimensions?

    <p>Positive biases on one dimension were related to positive biases on other dimensions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about the stability of positive illusions about the self?

    <p>They are stable over months.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bias is predicted by narcissism according to the text?

    <p>Positive bias in self-ratings compared to peer ratings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the study suggest about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?

    <p>There is no significant difference between individuals' self-ratings and ratings of friends or family members.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Dunning and Kruger propose regarding individuals with low expertise?

    <p>They may lack awareness of their limited abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might individuals with low abilities be more likely to overestimate the proportion of answers they got right in a test?

    <p>They make more mistakes in their estimates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the nature of mistakes according to the text?

    <p>We are not aware of them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study by Dunning and Kruger find about the bias in estimating test performance?

    <p>The bias is more severe for individuals with low abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might individuals with low expertise not notice their mistakes, according to the text?

    <p>They lack awareness of their limited abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Dunning and Kruger propose as a reason for illusory beliefs about the self?

    <p>They may simply lack awareness of their limited abilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Dunning and Kruger find about individuals with low expertise in estimating how many answers they got right in a test?

    <p>They are likely to overestimate the proportion of answers they got right</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the problem mentioned for individuals with low abilities when estimating how many answers they got right in a test?

    <p>They may think that they gave the right answer when they didn't</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the text suggest about the relationship between awareness and mistakes?

    <p>Individuals may not notice their mistakes due to lack of awareness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Duckworth et al. (2007) define as grit?

    <p>Perseverance and passion for long-term goals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Duckworth et al. find about the correlation between grit and educational attainment?

    <p>Positive correlation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about the correlation between self-control and verbal and physical aggression?

    <p>Strong negative correlation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study indicate about the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?

    <p>Strong positive relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the authors of the study view the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?

    <p>'Grit' is identical to conscientiousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about the correlation between self-control and alcohol consumption?

    <p>Negative correlation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about the relationship between monetary rewards and accurate performance estimates?

    <p>Monetary rewards had no impact on accurate performance estimates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Freud claim about psychological processes?

    <p>90% of psychological processes are unconscious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the distinction between self-regulation and repression of unwanted thoughts?

    <p>Self-regulation is like a snooze button, repression is a switch for turning off unwanted thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What predicts the suppression of socially undesirable behaviors?

    <p>Conscientiousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is self-regulation considered as?

    <p>A skill developed during adolescence and adulthood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Marshmallow test measure?

    <p>Children's self-control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about measuring repressive coping with self-ratings or the Marlowe-Crowne scale?

    <p>It has limitations in measuring repressive coping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study find about the accuracy of performance estimates among top 25% students?

    <p>They underestimate their performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the study reveal about individuals with low scores?

    <p>They underestimate their position in visible traits like attractiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did subsequent research reveal about positive illusions when below average?

    <p>Lack of introspection into mistakes leads to positive illusions when below average.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who created a theory of emotions that recognized three basic dimensions?

    <p>Wilhelm Wundt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychologists emphasized the importance of bodily sensations for emotions and created the James-Lange theory?

    <p>James and Lange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did research on emotions become acceptable and flourished again?

    <p>1980s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the broader term for research on emotions?

    <p>Affect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Contrary to the popular separation of reason in the head and feelings in the heart, where do both thinking and feeling happen?

    <p>In the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period did research on emotions cease?

    <p>Behaviorism era</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did personality psychology regain strength after the person-situation debate?

    <p>1980s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who established links between personality research and emotion research?

    <p>Psychologists in the 1980s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did subsequent research show about peripheral physiological states for emotional experiences?

    <p>Rare and not necessary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the focus during psychology's establishment as a scientific discipline?

    <p>Emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did an influential article integrate into a single model of affect?

    <p>Valence and activation dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the valence-activation model favored by affect researchers suggest about affects?

    <p>Some affects are basic and others are mixtures of basic affects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested by some research regarding activation systems in affect?

    <p>Two or more activation systems, indicating a three-dimensional model of affect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did emotion researchers identify as widely considered basic emotions?

    <p>Happiness, sadness, fear/anxiety, and anger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is involved in understanding affect and emotions according to the text?

    <p>Considering valence, activation, basic emotions, action tendencies, and facial expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did affect researchers disagree on regarding the two-dimensional structure of affect?

    <p>The basic dimensions creating the structure similar to a color wheel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does euphoria require according to the text?

    <p>A high state of activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does energetic arousal show according to the text?

    <p>A circadian rhythm increasing after waking up and decreasing over the day</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Unconscious Influence on Behavior

    • It is difficult to determine whether the taste of food had an unconscious influence on behavior, as people may not be aware of the taste while eating.
    • Controllability is a criterion for conscious processes, as people can change their behavior at will based on conscious processes.
    • Perceptual illusions demonstrate the distinction between awareness and controllability, showing that awareness does not make a process more controllable.
    • Uncontrollable processes, such as those triggering emotions, can influence our emotions even when we are aware of them.
    • Physiological processes, like those of the autonomous nervous system, are often not controllable.
    • The idea that aspects of our personality are not accessible to ourselves has contributed to Freud's popularity and led to attempts to influence behavior without awareness.
    • Subliminal priming and behavioral priming are methods used to present stimuli without awareness, with the former involving stimuli below the threshold for conscious awareness and the latter involving stimuli that influence behavior without conscious realization.
    • Studies in the 1990s suggested that stimuli outside of awareness can have powerful effects on behavior, but subsequent research in the 2010s revealed that many of these findings could not be replicated in unbiased replication studies.
    • Advertising agencies do not use subliminal stimuli to manipulate behavior, instead they manipulate behavior using stimuli in the focus of our attention, known as clip-bait.
    • Awareness of being manipulated does not necessarily make individuals immune to the manipulation, especially when tired and bored.
    • The ability to manipulate behavior without individuals’ awareness would be appealing to advertising agencies, but it is easier to manipulate behavior with stimuli in the focus of attention.
    • Unconscious processes can have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, even when we are aware of them.

    Implicit Personality Measures: TAT and IAT

    • The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is used as an implicit measure of personality, based on the idea that individuals project their personality onto an image.
    • Projective tests like the TAT are controversial due to the assumption that they provide access to information not consciously accessible, but the ability to do so is disputed.
    • TAT scores have low retest reliability, around 35%, and weak correlation with self-report measures of achievement motivation.
    • The low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures could be due to invalid self-report measures, invalid TAT scores, or the TAT measuring unconscious aspects of achievement motivation.
    • The TAT shows low convergent validity as measures of implicit motives for power, achievement, and affiliation, making it difficult to trust these scores.
    • The measurement problems with implicit motives are yet to be resolved, making it unclear whether unconscious motives exist and how they influence human behavior.
    • Coding open responses for implicit motives is time-consuming, but an automated scoring system has been proposed as a solution.
    • The Implicit Motive Test (IMT) uses word frequencies in stories to measure implicit motives and has shown consistent relationships across different samples.
    • The IMT revealed that power motives were related to more anger words, achievement motive to positive-outcome words, and affiliation motive to positive feeling and friend words.
    • Research on implicit motives with the TAT is labor-intensive and has low reliability and validity, thus progress in this area is slow.
    • The Implicit Association Test (IAT) promised to measure individual differences in unconscious processes more quickly and easily than the TAT.
    • The IAT gained popularity due to its availability to the general public and its use as a measure of depression, but the validity of IAT scores is still being investigated.

    Validity of Implicit Association Test (IAT) for Measuring Unconscious Self-Esteem

    • To test the validity of the self-esteem IAT, a study correlated IAT scores with several other implicit self-esteem measures
    • Implicit measures included subliminal priming tasks, letter and number liking, and the IAT itself
    • IAT scores were negatively related to scores on the other four implicit measures of self-esteem
    • The other four measures also had weak correlations with each other
    • Numerous articles relied on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems
    • Cultural differences in explicit self-esteem ratings were found, but no differences in self-esteem IAT scores between US and Japanese participants
    • Informant ratings by friends showed moderate convergent validity, weakly correlated with scores on the happiness IAT
    • IAT scores have low validity for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness
    • IAT scores have low convergent validity with other implicit measures and low correlations with non-self-report measures
    • There is a gap between self-perceptions and true personality, with only moderate self-informant agreement in ratings of numerous traits
    • The IAT fails to provide a window into unconscious aspects of our personality
    • Difficulty in studying unconscious processes does not imply full awareness of traits, motives, and true personality

    Self-Enhancement and Bias in Self-Ratings

    • Participants provided ratings of each other on various attributes after a weekend, and staff members also rated participants' attributes.
    • Biases in self-ratings compared to peer and staff ratings were predicted by narcissism (r ~.3).
    • Students who overestimated their academic abilities compared to standardized test scores and high school GPAs scored higher in narcissism (r ~.3).
    • Narcissists overestimate their intelligence and attractiveness compared to actual scores and ratings by observers (r ~.3).
    • Narcissism predicts inflated self-perceptions of leadership abilities.
    • Narcissists self-enhance agentic traits like extraversion, attractiveness, leadership, and intelligence, but not traits like conscientiousness or agreeableness.
    • Positive biases on one Big Five dimension were related to positive biases on other dimensions, indicating a general disposition to perceive oneself more positively across distinct traits.
    • Some positive illusions about the self are not rooted in self-enhancement but rather a general positivity bias.
    • Positive biases in self-ratings are stable over months and correlate with narcissism.
    • Individuals tend to rate themselves more positively than the average person, a finding observed in Western and non-Western countries.
    • Self-ratings are not more positive than ratings of friends or family members, and the majority of individuals do not see themselves as better than their close others.
    • Positive biases in self-ratings and ratings of friends are stronger in North America than in Asia; culture has an effect on these biases.

    Unconscious Bias and Self-Regulation

    • Bottom 25% of students tend to overestimate performance, while top 25% slightly underestimate.
    • Monetary rewards did not lead to more accurate performance estimates.
    • Individuals with low scores tend to overestimate their position, including visible traits like attractiveness.
    • Lack of introspection into mistakes leads to positive illusions, especially when below average.
    • Freud claimed 90% of psychological processes are unconscious, which remains unproven.
    • Unconscious processes are defined as uncontrollable or involuntary.
    • Coping strategies include defense mechanisms, self-regulation, and repression of unwanted thoughts.
    • Repressive coping is like a snooze button, not a switch for turning off unwanted thoughts.
    • Measuring repressive coping with self-ratings or the Marlowe-Crowne scale has limitations.
    • Conscientiousness predicts suppression of socially undesirable behaviors.
    • Self-regulation is considered a skill, not a trait, and develops during adolescence and adulthood.
    • The Marshmallow test measures children's self-control and has been studied for situational factors.

    Understanding Affect and Emotions

    • Affect is a broader term that encompasses both emotions and moods.
    • Two models emerged in the 1980s to classify affects: one based on valence and activation dimensions, and the other based on positive and negative affects.
    • An influential article integrated the two models into a single model, showing valence and activation as the primary dimensions.
    • Affect researchers disagreed on the basic dimensions that create the two-dimensional structure, similar to the concept of a color wheel.
    • The valence-activation model is favored by affect researchers, suggesting that some affects are basic and others are mixtures of basic affects.
    • Basic affects like happiness can occur with different levels of activation, while euphoria requires a high state of activation.
    • Some research suggests two, if not more, activation systems called energetic arousal and tense arousal, which may indicate a three-dimensional model of affect.
    • Energetic arousal shows a circadian rhythm, increasing after waking up and decreasing over the day, while tense arousal responds to stressful situations.
    • Emotions cannot be reduced to valence and activation dimensions, as emotion researchers have identified basic emotions with specific facial expressions and associated action tendencies.
    • The basic emotions widely considered include happiness, sadness, fear/anxiety, and anger.
    • These basic emotions reflect specific responses to events and are associated with distinct facial expressions.
    • Understanding affect and emotions involves considering valence, activation, basic emotions, and their associated action tendencies and facial expressions.

    Studying That Suits You

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    Description

    Test your understanding of unconscious processes and awareness with this quiz. Analyze examples of conscious and unconscious motives influencing actions and decisions.

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