Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which process demonstrates the distinction between awareness and controllability?
Which process demonstrates the distinction between awareness and controllability?
- Physiological processes
- Subliminal priming
- Perceptual illusions (correct)
- Unconscious emotions
What kind of stimuli involves presenting stimuli below the threshold for conscious awareness?
What kind of stimuli involves presenting stimuli below the threshold for conscious awareness?
- Conscious stimuli
- Behavioral priming
- Perceptual stimuli
- Subliminal priming (correct)
What did subsequent research in the 2010s reveal about the findings of studies in the 1990s regarding stimuli outside of awareness?
What did subsequent research in the 2010s reveal about the findings of studies in the 1990s regarding stimuli outside of awareness?
- The findings were disregarded due to biased replication studies
- Many of these findings could not be replicated in unbiased replication studies (correct)
- The findings were proven to be accurate
- The effects of stimuli were found to be even more powerful than initially thought
What method do advertising agencies use to manipulate behavior with stimuli in the focus of attention?
What method do advertising agencies use to manipulate behavior with stimuli in the focus of attention?
What does awareness of being manipulated not necessarily make individuals?
What does awareness of being manipulated not necessarily make individuals?
What kind of processes can have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, even when we are aware of them?
What kind of processes can have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, even when we are aware of them?
Which of the following best describes the distinction between conscious and unconscious processes?
Which of the following best describes the distinction between conscious and unconscious processes?
In what way can unconscious processes influence behavior, according to the text?
In what way can unconscious processes influence behavior, according to the text?
What example illustrates a situation where an individual is aware of the causes of their behavior?
What example illustrates a situation where an individual is aware of the causes of their behavior?
Which factor may influence behavior without individuals being aware of it, as mentioned in the text?
Which factor may influence behavior without individuals being aware of it, as mentioned in the text?
What does the text imply about the accessibility of certain processes to consciousness?
What does the text imply about the accessibility of certain processes to consciousness?
"Even if we are not aware of the taste of the food, it might influence our behavior" - What does this statement emphasize about unconscious influences?
"Even if we are not aware of the taste of the food, it might influence our behavior" - What does this statement emphasize about unconscious influences?
"How did you calculate 99*13? I first multiplied 13 by 100 and then subtracted 13 to get 1287." - What does this example illustrate about cognition?
"How did you calculate 99*13? I first multiplied 13 by 100 and then subtracted 13 to get 1287." - What does this example illustrate about cognition?
In what way can an individual's feelings be influenced without their awareness?
In what way can an individual's feelings be influenced without their awareness?
Which factor illustrates a situation where an individual's behavior may be influenced without their awareness?
Which factor illustrates a situation where an individual's behavior may be influenced without their awareness?
What does the text imply about the relationship between awareness and motives influencing actions?
What does the text imply about the relationship between awareness and motives influencing actions?
In what way can unconscious processes affect an individual's behavior and feelings?
In what way can unconscious processes affect an individual's behavior and feelings?
What term is used for self-ratings that require participants to be aware of the meaning of questions and to draw on consciously accessible information?
What term is used for self-ratings that require participants to be aware of the meaning of questions and to draw on consciously accessible information?
When were the first implicit measures of personality developed?
When were the first implicit measures of personality developed?
What is the aim of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is the aim of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What does the content of stories in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) reflect?
What does the content of stories in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) reflect?
What does the term 'implicit' contrast with in psychological science?
What does the term 'implicit' contrast with in psychological science?
What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?
What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?
What do projective tests aim to measure?
What do projective tests aim to measure?
What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What does the term 'implicit' mean in contrast to 'explicit'?
What does the term 'implicit' mean in contrast to 'explicit'?
What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?
What was assumed about important attributes of personality during the development of projective tests?
What do projective tests aim to measure?
What do projective tests aim to measure?
What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is coded for themes in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is a concern related to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is a concern related to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What contributes to the low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures?
What contributes to the low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures?
What is a challenge associated with implicit motives measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is a challenge associated with implicit motives measured by the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What has been proposed as a solution to the time-consuming nature of coding open responses for implicit motives?
What has been proposed as a solution to the time-consuming nature of coding open responses for implicit motives?
What method does the Implicit Motive Test (IMT) use to measure implicit motives?
What method does the Implicit Motive Test (IMT) use to measure implicit motives?
What type of words are power motives related to in the Implicit Motive Test (IMT)?
What type of words are power motives related to in the Implicit Motive Test (IMT)?
What is a claim made about the Implicit Association Test (IAT)?
What is a claim made about the Implicit Association Test (IAT)?
Why did the Implicit Association Test (IAT) gain popularity?
Why did the Implicit Association Test (IAT) gain popularity?
What is still being investigated regarding the validity of IAT scores?
What is still being investigated regarding the validity of IAT scores?
What is a drawback mentioned about research on implicit motives with projective tests like the TAT?
What is a drawback mentioned about research on implicit motives with projective tests like the TAT?
What does the text suggest about the correlation between IAT scores and explicit measures?
What does the text suggest about the correlation between IAT scores and explicit measures?
What does the text imply about the validity of IAT scores as measures of some personality attributes?
What does the text imply about the validity of IAT scores as measures of some personality attributes?
What does the text indicate about the correlation between explicit self-esteem measures and scores on a self-esteem IAT?
What does the text indicate about the correlation between explicit self-esteem measures and scores on a self-esteem IAT?
What does the text suggest about the relationship between measurement error and deviations in IAT scores from explicit beliefs?
What does the text suggest about the relationship between measurement error and deviations in IAT scores from explicit beliefs?
What does the text suggest about the validity of IAT as a measure for political orientation?
What does the text suggest about the validity of IAT as a measure for political orientation?
What does the text imply about the relationship between IAT scores and implicit attributes?
What does the text imply about the relationship between IAT scores and implicit attributes?
What did the study find about the correlation between IAT scores and other implicit self-esteem measures?
What did the study find about the correlation between IAT scores and other implicit self-esteem measures?
What did the study reveal about the cultural differences in self-esteem IAT scores between US and Japanese participants?
What did the study reveal about the cultural differences in self-esteem IAT scores between US and Japanese participants?
What did the study find about the validity of IAT scores for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness?
What did the study find about the validity of IAT scores for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness?
What did the study reveal about the convergent validity of IAT scores with other implicit measures?
What did the study reveal about the convergent validity of IAT scores with other implicit measures?
What did the study suggest about the ability of IAT to provide insight into unconscious aspects of personality?
What did the study suggest about the ability of IAT to provide insight into unconscious aspects of personality?
What was found about the relationship between self-perceptions and true personality?
What was found about the relationship between self-perceptions and true personality?
What was observed about the reliance on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems?
What was observed about the reliance on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems?
What type of errors in self-perceptions are suggested to be systematic and influenced by a motive to feel good about ourselves?
What type of errors in self-perceptions are suggested to be systematic and influenced by a motive to feel good about ourselves?
What does some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe in, despite evidence of fraud and corruption?
What does some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe in, despite evidence of fraud and corruption?
What do most researchers agree about the extent of positive illusions in individuals?
What do most researchers agree about the extent of positive illusions in individuals?
What do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?
What do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?
What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?
What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?
What is suggested by numerous lines of research about errors in our self-perceptions?
What is suggested by numerous lines of research about errors in our self-perceptions?
According to Lerner (1977), what may some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe despite evidence of fraud and corruption?
According to Lerner (1977), what may some research suggest individuals are motivated to believe despite evidence of fraud and corruption?
What do most researchers agree on regarding positive illusions?
What do most researchers agree on regarding positive illusions?
According to Taylor & Brown (1988), what do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?
According to Taylor & Brown (1988), what do some theories suggest all humans have about themselves, others, and the world?
What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?
What is the focus of attention when interested in self-perceptions according to John & Robins (1993)?
What is self-enhancement in the context of self-knowledge?
What is self-enhancement in the context of self-knowledge?
What is one reason for overly positive views of the self mentioned in the text?
What is one reason for overly positive views of the self mentioned in the text?
What is a challenge in studying self-enhancement?
What is a challenge in studying self-enhancement?
In what context was the term 'self-enhancement' used by Schwartz?
In what context was the term 'self-enhancement' used by Schwartz?
What solution to the problem of measuring self-enhancement is suggested in the text?
What solution to the problem of measuring self-enhancement is suggested in the text?
What does self-enhancement mean in the context of attractiveness?
What does self-enhancement mean in the context of attractiveness?
What is distinct from self-enhancement according to the text?
What is distinct from self-enhancement according to the text?
What makes measuring individuals' true personality difficult according to the text?
What makes measuring individuals' true personality difficult according to the text?
What does self-enhancement involve according to the text?
What does self-enhancement involve according to the text?
What do psychologists use the term 'self-enhancement' to describe?
What do psychologists use the term 'self-enhancement' to describe?
What did the study find about how close others perceive narcissists?
What did the study find about how close others perceive narcissists?
What did the study reveal about narcissists' self-ratings compared to how others perceive them?
What did the study reveal about narcissists' self-ratings compared to how others perceive them?
What explanation does the text provide for why people have biases despite being partially aware of them?
What explanation does the text provide for why people have biases despite being partially aware of them?
Why might individuals rate themselves as attractive despite being aware of discrimination based on certain attributes like skin tone?
Why might individuals rate themselves as attractive despite being aware of discrimination based on certain attributes like skin tone?
What does the text suggest about the reduction of biases in narcissists when asked to rate how others see them?
What does the text suggest about the reduction of biases in narcissists when asked to rate how others see them?
What does the text imply about narcissists' likelihood to accept and conform to social norms?
What does the text imply about narcissists' likelihood to accept and conform to social norms?
What trait is positively correlated with overestimation of academic abilities compared to standardized test scores and high school GPAs?
What trait is positively correlated with overestimation of academic abilities compared to standardized test scores and high school GPAs?
Which trait do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?
Which trait do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?
What did the study find about positive biases in self-ratings over time?
What did the study find about positive biases in self-ratings over time?
What did the study reveal about cultural differences in positive biases in self-ratings?
What did the study reveal about cultural differences in positive biases in self-ratings?
What kind of traits do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?
What kind of traits do narcissists tend to self-enhance according to the text?
What does the study indicate about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?
What does the study indicate about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?
What was found about the relationship between positive biases on one Big Five dimension and positive biases on other dimensions?
What was found about the relationship between positive biases on one Big Five dimension and positive biases on other dimensions?
What did the study reveal about the stability of positive illusions about the self?
What did the study reveal about the stability of positive illusions about the self?
What type of bias is predicted by narcissism according to the text?
What type of bias is predicted by narcissism according to the text?
What does the study suggest about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?
What does the study suggest about individuals' self-ratings compared to ratings of friends or family members?
What did Dunning and Kruger propose regarding individuals with low expertise?
What did Dunning and Kruger propose regarding individuals with low expertise?
Why might individuals with low abilities be more likely to overestimate the proportion of answers they got right in a test?
Why might individuals with low abilities be more likely to overestimate the proportion of answers they got right in a test?
What is the nature of mistakes according to the text?
What is the nature of mistakes according to the text?
What did the study by Dunning and Kruger find about the bias in estimating test performance?
What did the study by Dunning and Kruger find about the bias in estimating test performance?
Why might individuals with low expertise not notice their mistakes, according to the text?
Why might individuals with low expertise not notice their mistakes, according to the text?
What did Dunning and Kruger propose as a reason for illusory beliefs about the self?
What did Dunning and Kruger propose as a reason for illusory beliefs about the self?
What did Dunning and Kruger find about individuals with low expertise in estimating how many answers they got right in a test?
What did Dunning and Kruger find about individuals with low expertise in estimating how many answers they got right in a test?
What is the problem mentioned for individuals with low abilities when estimating how many answers they got right in a test?
What is the problem mentioned for individuals with low abilities when estimating how many answers they got right in a test?
What does the text suggest about the relationship between awareness and mistakes?
What does the text suggest about the relationship between awareness and mistakes?
What did Duckworth et al. (2007) define as grit?
What did Duckworth et al. (2007) define as grit?
What did Duckworth et al. find about the correlation between grit and educational attainment?
What did Duckworth et al. find about the correlation between grit and educational attainment?
What did the study reveal about the correlation between self-control and verbal and physical aggression?
What did the study reveal about the correlation between self-control and verbal and physical aggression?
What did the study indicate about the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?
What did the study indicate about the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?
How did the authors of the study view the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?
How did the authors of the study view the relationship between grit and conscientiousness?
What did the study find about the correlation between self-control and alcohol consumption?
What did the study find about the correlation between self-control and alcohol consumption?
What did the study find about the relationship between monetary rewards and accurate performance estimates?
What did the study find about the relationship between monetary rewards and accurate performance estimates?
What did Freud claim about psychological processes?
What did Freud claim about psychological processes?
What is the distinction between self-regulation and repression of unwanted thoughts?
What is the distinction between self-regulation and repression of unwanted thoughts?
What predicts the suppression of socially undesirable behaviors?
What predicts the suppression of socially undesirable behaviors?
What is self-regulation considered as?
What is self-regulation considered as?
What does the Marshmallow test measure?
What does the Marshmallow test measure?
What did the study reveal about measuring repressive coping with self-ratings or the Marlowe-Crowne scale?
What did the study reveal about measuring repressive coping with self-ratings or the Marlowe-Crowne scale?
What did the study find about the accuracy of performance estimates among top 25% students?
What did the study find about the accuracy of performance estimates among top 25% students?
What did the study reveal about individuals with low scores?
What did the study reveal about individuals with low scores?
What did subsequent research reveal about positive illusions when below average?
What did subsequent research reveal about positive illusions when below average?
Who created a theory of emotions that recognized three basic dimensions?
Who created a theory of emotions that recognized three basic dimensions?
Which psychologists emphasized the importance of bodily sensations for emotions and created the James-Lange theory?
Which psychologists emphasized the importance of bodily sensations for emotions and created the James-Lange theory?
When did research on emotions become acceptable and flourished again?
When did research on emotions become acceptable and flourished again?
What is the broader term for research on emotions?
What is the broader term for research on emotions?
Contrary to the popular separation of reason in the head and feelings in the heart, where do both thinking and feeling happen?
Contrary to the popular separation of reason in the head and feelings in the heart, where do both thinking and feeling happen?
During which period did research on emotions cease?
During which period did research on emotions cease?
When did personality psychology regain strength after the person-situation debate?
When did personality psychology regain strength after the person-situation debate?
Who established links between personality research and emotion research?
Who established links between personality research and emotion research?
What did subsequent research show about peripheral physiological states for emotional experiences?
What did subsequent research show about peripheral physiological states for emotional experiences?
What was the focus during psychology's establishment as a scientific discipline?
What was the focus during psychology's establishment as a scientific discipline?
What did an influential article integrate into a single model of affect?
What did an influential article integrate into a single model of affect?
What did the valence-activation model favored by affect researchers suggest about affects?
What did the valence-activation model favored by affect researchers suggest about affects?
What is suggested by some research regarding activation systems in affect?
What is suggested by some research regarding activation systems in affect?
What did emotion researchers identify as widely considered basic emotions?
What did emotion researchers identify as widely considered basic emotions?
What is involved in understanding affect and emotions according to the text?
What is involved in understanding affect and emotions according to the text?
What did affect researchers disagree on regarding the two-dimensional structure of affect?
What did affect researchers disagree on regarding the two-dimensional structure of affect?
What does euphoria require according to the text?
What does euphoria require according to the text?
What does energetic arousal show according to the text?
What does energetic arousal show according to the text?
Study Notes
Unconscious Influence on Behavior
- It is difficult to determine whether the taste of food had an unconscious influence on behavior, as people may not be aware of the taste while eating.
- Controllability is a criterion for conscious processes, as people can change their behavior at will based on conscious processes.
- Perceptual illusions demonstrate the distinction between awareness and controllability, showing that awareness does not make a process more controllable.
- Uncontrollable processes, such as those triggering emotions, can influence our emotions even when we are aware of them.
- Physiological processes, like those of the autonomous nervous system, are often not controllable.
- The idea that aspects of our personality are not accessible to ourselves has contributed to Freud's popularity and led to attempts to influence behavior without awareness.
- Subliminal priming and behavioral priming are methods used to present stimuli without awareness, with the former involving stimuli below the threshold for conscious awareness and the latter involving stimuli that influence behavior without conscious realization.
- Studies in the 1990s suggested that stimuli outside of awareness can have powerful effects on behavior, but subsequent research in the 2010s revealed that many of these findings could not be replicated in unbiased replication studies.
- Advertising agencies do not use subliminal stimuli to manipulate behavior, instead they manipulate behavior using stimuli in the focus of our attention, known as clip-bait.
- Awareness of being manipulated does not necessarily make individuals immune to the manipulation, especially when tired and bored.
- The ability to manipulate behavior without individuals’ awareness would be appealing to advertising agencies, but it is easier to manipulate behavior with stimuli in the focus of attention.
- Unconscious processes can have a significant impact on behavior and emotions, even when we are aware of them.
Implicit Personality Measures: TAT and IAT
- The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) is used as an implicit measure of personality, based on the idea that individuals project their personality onto an image.
- Projective tests like the TAT are controversial due to the assumption that they provide access to information not consciously accessible, but the ability to do so is disputed.
- TAT scores have low retest reliability, around 35%, and weak correlation with self-report measures of achievement motivation.
- The low correlation between TAT scores and self-report measures could be due to invalid self-report measures, invalid TAT scores, or the TAT measuring unconscious aspects of achievement motivation.
- The TAT shows low convergent validity as measures of implicit motives for power, achievement, and affiliation, making it difficult to trust these scores.
- The measurement problems with implicit motives are yet to be resolved, making it unclear whether unconscious motives exist and how they influence human behavior.
- Coding open responses for implicit motives is time-consuming, but an automated scoring system has been proposed as a solution.
- The Implicit Motive Test (IMT) uses word frequencies in stories to measure implicit motives and has shown consistent relationships across different samples.
- The IMT revealed that power motives were related to more anger words, achievement motive to positive-outcome words, and affiliation motive to positive feeling and friend words.
- Research on implicit motives with the TAT is labor-intensive and has low reliability and validity, thus progress in this area is slow.
- The Implicit Association Test (IAT) promised to measure individual differences in unconscious processes more quickly and easily than the TAT.
- The IAT gained popularity due to its availability to the general public and its use as a measure of depression, but the validity of IAT scores is still being investigated.
Validity of Implicit Association Test (IAT) for Measuring Unconscious Self-Esteem
- To test the validity of the self-esteem IAT, a study correlated IAT scores with several other implicit self-esteem measures
- Implicit measures included subliminal priming tasks, letter and number liking, and the IAT itself
- IAT scores were negatively related to scores on the other four implicit measures of self-esteem
- The other four measures also had weak correlations with each other
- Numerous articles relied on the self-esteem IAT despite measurement problems
- Cultural differences in explicit self-esteem ratings were found, but no differences in self-esteem IAT scores between US and Japanese participants
- Informant ratings by friends showed moderate convergent validity, weakly correlated with scores on the happiness IAT
- IAT scores have low validity for assessing personality traits like extraversion and shyness
- IAT scores have low convergent validity with other implicit measures and low correlations with non-self-report measures
- There is a gap between self-perceptions and true personality, with only moderate self-informant agreement in ratings of numerous traits
- The IAT fails to provide a window into unconscious aspects of our personality
- Difficulty in studying unconscious processes does not imply full awareness of traits, motives, and true personality
Self-Enhancement and Bias in Self-Ratings
- Participants provided ratings of each other on various attributes after a weekend, and staff members also rated participants' attributes.
- Biases in self-ratings compared to peer and staff ratings were predicted by narcissism (r ~.3).
- Students who overestimated their academic abilities compared to standardized test scores and high school GPAs scored higher in narcissism (r ~.3).
- Narcissists overestimate their intelligence and attractiveness compared to actual scores and ratings by observers (r ~.3).
- Narcissism predicts inflated self-perceptions of leadership abilities.
- Narcissists self-enhance agentic traits like extraversion, attractiveness, leadership, and intelligence, but not traits like conscientiousness or agreeableness.
- Positive biases on one Big Five dimension were related to positive biases on other dimensions, indicating a general disposition to perceive oneself more positively across distinct traits.
- Some positive illusions about the self are not rooted in self-enhancement but rather a general positivity bias.
- Positive biases in self-ratings are stable over months and correlate with narcissism.
- Individuals tend to rate themselves more positively than the average person, a finding observed in Western and non-Western countries.
- Self-ratings are not more positive than ratings of friends or family members, and the majority of individuals do not see themselves as better than their close others.
- Positive biases in self-ratings and ratings of friends are stronger in North America than in Asia; culture has an effect on these biases.
Unconscious Bias and Self-Regulation
- Bottom 25% of students tend to overestimate performance, while top 25% slightly underestimate.
- Monetary rewards did not lead to more accurate performance estimates.
- Individuals with low scores tend to overestimate their position, including visible traits like attractiveness.
- Lack of introspection into mistakes leads to positive illusions, especially when below average.
- Freud claimed 90% of psychological processes are unconscious, which remains unproven.
- Unconscious processes are defined as uncontrollable or involuntary.
- Coping strategies include defense mechanisms, self-regulation, and repression of unwanted thoughts.
- Repressive coping is like a snooze button, not a switch for turning off unwanted thoughts.
- Measuring repressive coping with self-ratings or the Marlowe-Crowne scale has limitations.
- Conscientiousness predicts suppression of socially undesirable behaviors.
- Self-regulation is considered a skill, not a trait, and develops during adolescence and adulthood.
- The Marshmallow test measures children's self-control and has been studied for situational factors.
Understanding Affect and Emotions
- Affect is a broader term that encompasses both emotions and moods.
- Two models emerged in the 1980s to classify affects: one based on valence and activation dimensions, and the other based on positive and negative affects.
- An influential article integrated the two models into a single model, showing valence and activation as the primary dimensions.
- Affect researchers disagreed on the basic dimensions that create the two-dimensional structure, similar to the concept of a color wheel.
- The valence-activation model is favored by affect researchers, suggesting that some affects are basic and others are mixtures of basic affects.
- Basic affects like happiness can occur with different levels of activation, while euphoria requires a high state of activation.
- Some research suggests two, if not more, activation systems called energetic arousal and tense arousal, which may indicate a three-dimensional model of affect.
- Energetic arousal shows a circadian rhythm, increasing after waking up and decreasing over the day, while tense arousal responds to stressful situations.
- Emotions cannot be reduced to valence and activation dimensions, as emotion researchers have identified basic emotions with specific facial expressions and associated action tendencies.
- The basic emotions widely considered include happiness, sadness, fear/anxiety, and anger.
- These basic emotions reflect specific responses to events and are associated with distinct facial expressions.
- Understanding affect and emotions involves considering valence, activation, basic emotions, and their associated action tendencies and facial expressions.
Studying That Suits You
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Description
Test your understanding of unconscious processes and awareness with this quiz. Analyze examples of conscious and unconscious motives influencing actions and decisions.
