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Questions and Answers

What is the main focus of trait psychology?

  • Individual differences in personality (correct)
  • The study of emotions and motivation
  • Cultural variations in personality
  • The influence of genetics on behavior
  • Which of the following models is associated with trait theories?

  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
  • Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
  • Attachment Theory
  • Five Factor Model (correct)
  • What does the lexical hypothesis suggest?

  • Words used to describe personality reflect fundamental traits (correct)
  • Personality traits are exclusively biological
  • Emotions govern personality more than traits do
  • Personality traits change based on cultural context
  • How do evolutionary psychology and trait psychology differ in their approaches?

    <p>Trait psychology emphasizes universal traits while evolutionary psychology emphasizes evolved mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Five Factor Model, which trait is indicated by the acronym OCEAN for 'N'?

    <p>Neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'nomothetic approach' refer to in trait psychology?

    <p>Identifying broad generalizations across groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one notable finding from the meta-analysis conducted by Judge et al. (2002) regarding personality traits?

    <p>Higher extraversion is linked to greater job satisfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do trait accounts generally perceive the influence of life experiences on personality traits?

    <p>Traits are relatively unaffected by life experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested as a potential reason for geographical differences in personality?

    <p>Shared culture and genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of personality differences is attributed to genetic differences according to meta-analysis?

    <p>40%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does McCrae suggest about the factors influencing personality differences?

    <p>They may involve shared genes and culture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the main findings regarding genetics and personality traits?

    <p>Genetic basis may explain national personality differences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Tooby & Cosmides, what should we suspect about evolutionary forces?

    <p>They are the same for psychological and physiological mechanisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What core assumption underlies evolutionary approaches to personality?

    <p>Adaptation is related to survival and reproductive success.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between latitude and extraversion according to the research?

    <p>r = .59</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do self-reports and observer ratings suggest regarding personality profiles?

    <p>They align closely with observer perspectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which traits are suggested to be linked with geographical distance from the equator?

    <p>More outgoing but less dutiful</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the cluster analysis reveal about cultures with similar personality profiles?

    <p>They are linked by geographical proximity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of variance in personality scores is attributed to environmental influences?

    <p>60%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to multidimensional scaling (MDS), which cultures tend to score higher on Extraversion and Openness?

    <p>European cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimensions does the figure associate with the geographical directions North and East?

    <p>Neuroticism and Extraversion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the study suggest about establishing a true country ranking based on personality differences?

    <p>It is challenging due to small differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one major outstanding question regarding the reported personality differences?

    <p>Whether these differences are real or just self-reported</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do personality differences between individuals compare to those between countries?

    <p>Differences between countries are much smaller</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary focus of evolutionary psychology regarding human preferences?

    <p>To explore how evolved mechanisms affect reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of 'preparedness' in evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Innate fears towards certain objects or situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significant finding from Buss's 1989 survey regarding mate preferences?

    <p>Females are more attracted to wealthy men than to men based on appearance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do evolutionary psychologists argue that reproductive goals shape female preferences?

    <p>By illustrating the need for resource security during pregnancy and lactation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critique was raised by Bussey and Bandura regarding evolutionary psychology?

    <p>It overemphasizes genetic factors in behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of evolutionary psychology, which of the following is considered a perceptual bias?

    <p>Focus on detecting differences rather than similarities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the context in which evolutionary adaptations were made, according to evolutionary psychology?

    <p>Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological mechanism is characterized as automatic and nonconscious?

    <p>Evolved psychological mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor has significantly modified reproduction practices and lifestyle changes over recent years?

    <p>Technological innovations in contraception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept refers to cultural differences transmitted across individuals and groups?

    <p>Transmitted culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Buss suggest is a crucial factor in mate selection in environments with high pathogen prevalence?

    <p>Physical attractiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the content, what is mentioned as being crucial for increasing gene propagation?

    <p>Indicators of reproductive fitness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Buss state regarding descriptions of cultural differences?

    <p>They often overlook individual differences within cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect does evolutionary psychology need to account for concerning human behavior?

    <p>Cultural diversity and sex differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'evoked culture' refer to?

    <p>Cultural variations stemming from environmental pressures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What correlation did Gangestad and Buss find regarding physical attractiveness and pathogen prevalence?

    <p>Strong positive correlation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Universal Approaches to Personality

    • Traits and evolutionary psychology are universal theories of personality, suggesting that while individuals differ, there are common human tendencies and underlying human nature.
    • Trait Psychology: argues that personality traits apply to everyone across all cultures, with potential individual variation.
    • Evolutionary Psychology: posits universally evolved preferences and mechanisms, suggesting that our psychology has been shaped by natural selection to enhance survival and reproductive success.

    Trait Theories

    • Traits: defined as enduring dispositions or tendencies to think, feel, and behave in consistent ways.
    • Key aspects of trait theories:
      • Nomothetic Approach: focusing on general laws that apply to individuals, aiming to establish broad principles.
      • Dominant Approach in Personality Research: frequently used to understand and study personality.
      • Nature over Nurture: favoring the role of genetics and innate factors in shaping personality, but acknowledging the interaction between nature and nurture.
    • Lexical Hypothesis: proposes that important personality traits will be encoded in language.

    Five Factor Model (FFM)

    • OCEAN model: includes five core personality traits: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
    • Traits are considered relatively stable and resistant to life experiences.
    • Strong empirical basis: supported by a wealth of data and validated through various studies.
    • Predictive validity: can predict various outcomes, such as job satisfaction and academic performance.

    Geographical Differences in Personality

    • Study by Allik and McCrae (2004): analyzed data from 27,965 individuals across 5 continents.
    • Relationship between latitude and personality traits:
      • Extraversion: positively correlated with latitude, suggesting people living further from the equator tend to be more outgoing.
      • Conscientiousness: negatively correlated with latitude, implying people living further from the equator tend to be less dutiful.
    • Cluster analysis: revealed clusters of cultures with similar personality profiles, indicating that cultures closer geographically tend to share similar personality traits.

    Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)

    • Positions countries or cultures in a reduced space (typically 2D) based on personality similarities, revealing clusters of distinct groups.
    • Euro-American cultures: tend to score higher on Extraversion and Openness.
    • Asian-African cultures: typically score higher on Introversion and Closeness.

    Magnitude of Cultural Differences in Personality

    • Study by Allik et al. (2017):
      • 71,870 participants from 76 samples across 62 countries and 37 languages.
      • Found that differences in personality between countries/cultures are relatively small compared to differences between individuals within the same country.

    Outstanding Questions

    • The impact of self-reporting vs. actual behavior:
      • Possible cultural variation in response styles or self-presentational strategies.
      • Solution: using independent observers from outside the target culture.
      • Similar profiles found for self-reports and observer ratings.
    • Determining the cause of geographical differences in personality:
      • Potential causes: shared culture, genetics, and physical environment.
      • Challenges in separating these factors.
    • Role of genetics:
      • Potential genetic basis for national differences in personality.
      • Genetic plot predicted to align with geographical findings.

    Traits and Genetics

    • Twin studies and meta-analyses: estimate that approximately 40-50% of personality differences can be attributed to genetics.
    • Environmental factors: play a significant role in shaping personality.

    Evolutionary Psychology (EP)

    • Aim: to identify universal human nature through the lens of biology and evolutionary processes.
    • Core assumptions:
      • Darwin's theory of natural selection: organisms with traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to pass on those traits.
      • Adaptations: traits that have evolved to solve specific problems in a particular environment.
      • Psychological adaptations: evolved preferences, biases, and mechanisms that influence behavior.
      • Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA): the environment in which humans evolved.
      • Interactionist framework: recognizing the interplay between biological and environmental factors.

    EP: Key Concepts

    • Human nature: not a blank slate but shaped by evolved psychological mechanisms.
    • Evolved psychological mechanisms: automatic, non-conscious processes that influence behavior.
    • Preparedness: innate fear responses to certain stimuli (e.g., heights, snakes).
    • Perceptual biases: tendency to focus on differences rather than similarities.
    • Selective pressures: environmental forces that influence the evolution of traits.
    • Sex differences: variations in evolved preferences and mechanisms based on sex.
    • Evolved motives, strivings, and goal-directed proclivities: aimed at maximising reproductive success.
    • Importance of resources for females: need to secure resources for pregnancy and lactation.
    • Female preferences: favoring mates who display the ability to acquire and provide resources.

    Developments in EP

    • First-generation EP: establishing legitimacy through research on universal traits and mate preferences.
    • Buss (1989): study across 37 countries on mate preferences.
    • Females prefer wealthy men.
    • Males prefer young, physically attractive women.
    • Males prioritize physical attractiveness in short-term and long-term relationships.
    • Females value status and resources in long-term relationships.

    EP & Culture: Problems

    • Cultural differences in gender roles:
    • Bussey and Bandura (1999) argue that EP struggles to explain cultural diversity in gender roles.
    • Suggest that gender roles are more influenced by nurture rather than nature.
    • Cultural differences in beauty:
      • EP may not fully account for cultural variations in beauty standards.
      • Suggests that cultural construction of attractiveness plays a significant role in shaping sexual arousal.

    EP & Cultural Differences

    • Buss's view:
      • Need to account for both cultural diversity and sex differences.
      • Transmitted culture: cultural beliefs and ideas passed down across individuals and groups.
      • Evoked culture: culturally specific responses elicited by particular environmental pressures.

    EP & Pathogens

    • Gangestad and Buss (1993):
    • Correlation between pathogen prevalence in a culture and the emphasis on physical attractiveness in mate selection ( r = .71).
    • Suggests that people living in environments with high pathogen prevalence place a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness as a signal of health and reproductive fitness.
    • Gangestad et al. (2006): found that parasite prevalence, not gender equality, predicted preferences for physical attractiveness.

    Traits & Evolution

    • Buss's argument:
    • Important to consider individual differences within cultures and the overlap between cultures.
    • How have traits evolved?: through natural selection, with costs and benefits associated with them.
    • Nettle (2006): proposes that variations in personality traits may have evolved in response to different environmental pressures.

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