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Questions and Answers
What is the main focus of trait psychology?
Which of the following models is associated with trait theories?
What does the lexical hypothesis suggest?
How do evolutionary psychology and trait psychology differ in their approaches?
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According to the Five Factor Model, which trait is indicated by the acronym OCEAN for 'N'?
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What does the term 'nomothetic approach' refer to in trait psychology?
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What is one notable finding from the meta-analysis conducted by Judge et al. (2002) regarding personality traits?
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How do trait accounts generally perceive the influence of life experiences on personality traits?
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What is suggested as a potential reason for geographical differences in personality?
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What percentage of personality differences is attributed to genetic differences according to meta-analysis?
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What does McCrae suggest about the factors influencing personality differences?
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What is one of the main findings regarding genetics and personality traits?
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According to Tooby & Cosmides, what should we suspect about evolutionary forces?
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What core assumption underlies evolutionary approaches to personality?
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What is the correlation between latitude and extraversion according to the research?
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What do self-reports and observer ratings suggest regarding personality profiles?
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Which traits are suggested to be linked with geographical distance from the equator?
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What did the cluster analysis reveal about cultures with similar personality profiles?
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What percentage of variance in personality scores is attributed to environmental influences?
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According to multidimensional scaling (MDS), which cultures tend to score higher on Extraversion and Openness?
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Which dimensions does the figure associate with the geographical directions North and East?
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What does the study suggest about establishing a true country ranking based on personality differences?
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What is one major outstanding question regarding the reported personality differences?
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How do personality differences between individuals compare to those between countries?
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What is a primary focus of evolutionary psychology regarding human preferences?
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Which of the following best describes the concept of 'preparedness' in evolutionary psychology?
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What was the significant finding from Buss's 1989 survey regarding mate preferences?
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How do evolutionary psychologists argue that reproductive goals shape female preferences?
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What critique was raised by Bussey and Bandura regarding evolutionary psychology?
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In terms of evolutionary psychology, which of the following is considered a perceptual bias?
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What term describes the context in which evolutionary adaptations were made, according to evolutionary psychology?
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Which psychological mechanism is characterized as automatic and nonconscious?
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What factor has significantly modified reproduction practices and lifestyle changes over recent years?
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Which concept refers to cultural differences transmitted across individuals and groups?
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What does Buss suggest is a crucial factor in mate selection in environments with high pathogen prevalence?
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According to the content, what is mentioned as being crucial for increasing gene propagation?
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What does Buss state regarding descriptions of cultural differences?
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What aspect does evolutionary psychology need to account for concerning human behavior?
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What does the term 'evoked culture' refer to?
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What correlation did Gangestad and Buss find regarding physical attractiveness and pathogen prevalence?
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Study Notes
Universal Approaches to Personality
- Traits and evolutionary psychology are universal theories of personality, suggesting that while individuals differ, there are common human tendencies and underlying human nature.
- Trait Psychology: argues that personality traits apply to everyone across all cultures, with potential individual variation.
- Evolutionary Psychology: posits universally evolved preferences and mechanisms, suggesting that our psychology has been shaped by natural selection to enhance survival and reproductive success.
Trait Theories
- Traits: defined as enduring dispositions or tendencies to think, feel, and behave in consistent ways.
- Key aspects of trait theories:
- Nomothetic Approach: focusing on general laws that apply to individuals, aiming to establish broad principles.
- Dominant Approach in Personality Research: frequently used to understand and study personality.
- Nature over Nurture: favoring the role of genetics and innate factors in shaping personality, but acknowledging the interaction between nature and nurture.
- Lexical Hypothesis: proposes that important personality traits will be encoded in language.
Five Factor Model (FFM)
- OCEAN model: includes five core personality traits: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
- Traits are considered relatively stable and resistant to life experiences.
- Strong empirical basis: supported by a wealth of data and validated through various studies.
- Predictive validity: can predict various outcomes, such as job satisfaction and academic performance.
Geographical Differences in Personality
- Study by Allik and McCrae (2004): analyzed data from 27,965 individuals across 5 continents.
- Relationship between latitude and personality traits:
- Extraversion: positively correlated with latitude, suggesting people living further from the equator tend to be more outgoing.
- Conscientiousness: negatively correlated with latitude, implying people living further from the equator tend to be less dutiful.
- Cluster analysis: revealed clusters of cultures with similar personality profiles, indicating that cultures closer geographically tend to share similar personality traits.
Multidimensional Scaling (MDS)
- Positions countries or cultures in a reduced space (typically 2D) based on personality similarities, revealing clusters of distinct groups.
- Euro-American cultures: tend to score higher on Extraversion and Openness.
- Asian-African cultures: typically score higher on Introversion and Closeness.
Magnitude of Cultural Differences in Personality
- Study by Allik et al. (2017):
- 71,870 participants from 76 samples across 62 countries and 37 languages.
- Found that differences in personality between countries/cultures are relatively small compared to differences between individuals within the same country.
Outstanding Questions
- The impact of self-reporting vs. actual behavior:
- Possible cultural variation in response styles or self-presentational strategies.
- Solution: using independent observers from outside the target culture.
- Similar profiles found for self-reports and observer ratings.
- Determining the cause of geographical differences in personality:
- Potential causes: shared culture, genetics, and physical environment.
- Challenges in separating these factors.
- Role of genetics:
- Potential genetic basis for national differences in personality.
- Genetic plot predicted to align with geographical findings.
Traits and Genetics
- Twin studies and meta-analyses: estimate that approximately 40-50% of personality differences can be attributed to genetics.
- Environmental factors: play a significant role in shaping personality.
Evolutionary Psychology (EP)
- Aim: to identify universal human nature through the lens of biology and evolutionary processes.
- Core assumptions:
- Darwin's theory of natural selection: organisms with traits that enhance survival and reproduction are more likely to pass on those traits.
- Adaptations: traits that have evolved to solve specific problems in a particular environment.
- Psychological adaptations: evolved preferences, biases, and mechanisms that influence behavior.
- Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA): the environment in which humans evolved.
- Interactionist framework: recognizing the interplay between biological and environmental factors.
EP: Key Concepts
- Human nature: not a blank slate but shaped by evolved psychological mechanisms.
- Evolved psychological mechanisms: automatic, non-conscious processes that influence behavior.
- Preparedness: innate fear responses to certain stimuli (e.g., heights, snakes).
- Perceptual biases: tendency to focus on differences rather than similarities.
Preferences Related to Reproductive Success
- Selective pressures: environmental forces that influence the evolution of traits.
- Sex differences: variations in evolved preferences and mechanisms based on sex.
- Evolved motives, strivings, and goal-directed proclivities: aimed at maximising reproductive success.
- Importance of resources for females: need to secure resources for pregnancy and lactation.
- Female preferences: favoring mates who display the ability to acquire and provide resources.
Developments in EP
- First-generation EP: establishing legitimacy through research on universal traits and mate preferences.
- Buss (1989): study across 37 countries on mate preferences.
- Females prefer wealthy men.
- Males prefer young, physically attractive women.
- Males prioritize physical attractiveness in short-term and long-term relationships.
- Females value status and resources in long-term relationships.
EP & Culture: Problems
- Cultural differences in gender roles:
- Bussey and Bandura (1999) argue that EP struggles to explain cultural diversity in gender roles.
- Suggest that gender roles are more influenced by nurture rather than nature.
- Cultural differences in beauty:
- EP may not fully account for cultural variations in beauty standards.
- Suggests that cultural construction of attractiveness plays a significant role in shaping sexual arousal.
EP & Cultural Differences
- Buss's view:
- Need to account for both cultural diversity and sex differences.
- Transmitted culture: cultural beliefs and ideas passed down across individuals and groups.
- Evoked culture: culturally specific responses elicited by particular environmental pressures.
EP & Pathogens
- Gangestad and Buss (1993):
- Correlation between pathogen prevalence in a culture and the emphasis on physical attractiveness in mate selection ( r = .71).
- Suggests that people living in environments with high pathogen prevalence place a greater emphasis on physical attractiveness as a signal of health and reproductive fitness.
- Gangestad et al. (2006): found that parasite prevalence, not gender equality, predicted preferences for physical attractiveness.
Traits & Evolution
- Buss's argument:
- Important to consider individual differences within cultures and the overlap between cultures.
- How have traits evolved?: through natural selection, with costs and benefits associated with them.
- Nettle (2006): proposes that variations in personality traits may have evolved in response to different environmental pressures.
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