38 Questions
What is the role of peroxidase enzymes in the synthesis of thyroid hormones?
To form T1 and T2
What is the result of lack of iodine in the diet?
Enlargement of the thyroid gland
What is the function of thyroxine-binding globulins (TBGs) produced by the liver?
To bind and transport T3 and T4
What is the outcome of untreated myxedema?
Gland atrophy
What is the cause of cretinism?
Thyroid hormone insufficiency in infancy
What is the characteristic symptom of exophthalmos?
Edema and fibrosis of the tissue behind the eyes
What is the treatment for hyperthyroidism?
Surgical removal of the thyroid gland or radioactive iodine
What is the role of TRH in regulating thyroid hormones?
To overcome negative feedback
What is the primary factor controlling cortisol secretion?
ACTH stimulation from the pituitary gland
What is a primary characteristic of Cushing's syndrome?
Elevated blood glucose levels
What is a consequence of low glucocorticoid levels?
Severe dehydration and hypotension
What is the primary function of androgens?
Initiation of puberty and secondary sex characteristics
What is the primary product of chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla?
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
What is the effect of epinephrine on the heart?
Increased heart rate
What is the primary consequence of a deficiency in adrenal medulla hormones?
No significant consequences
What is the role of norepinephrine in the body?
Influence on peripheral vasoconstriction and blood pressure
What is the primary function of testosterone in the male reproductive system?
Initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the release of HCl in the stomach?
Gastrin
Which of the following organs is responsible for producing erythropoietin, a hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells?
Kidneys
What is the primary function of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) produced by the placenta?
Influences the course of pregnancy
Which of the following hormones is involved in the sensation of satiety and stimulates increased energy expenditure?
Leptin
Which of the following structures is derived from the mesoderm germ layer?
Endocrine glands that produce steroid hormones
What is the primary function of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) produced by the heart?
Inhibits aldosterone production, reducing blood pressure and blood volume
What is the primary function of cholecalciferol produced by the skin?
Is the precursor of vitamin D
Which hormone is most affected by pollutants, leading to high cancer rates in certain areas?
Glucocorticoids
What is the consequence of ovaries becoming unresponsive to gonadotropins?
The inability to bear children
What is the effect of declining GH levels with age?
Increased muscle atrophy
Which hormone is responsible for the bone-demineralizing effects in women?
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
What is the consequence of declining thyroid hormone with age?
Lower basal metabolic rate
What is a potential benefit of supplemental GH?
Spurring muscle growth and reducing body fat
What is the primary function of mineralocorticoids in regulating electrolyte concentrations of extracellular fluids?
Maintaining sodium ion balance by reducing excretion of sodium from the body
What is the effect of a lack of mineralocorticoids on the body?
A decrease in blood volume and an increase in potassium ion concentration
What is the primary function of aldosterone in regulating sodium ion balance?
Stimulating the reabsorption of sodium by the kidneys
What is the effect of aldosterone on potassium ion concentration?
It sets the resting membrane potential of cells
What is the effect of aldosteronism on the body?
It leads to hypertension and edema due to excessive sodium retention
What is the role of the renin-angiotensin system in regulating aldosterone release?
It stimulates the release of aldosterone
What is the effect of cortisol on blood sugar levels?
It increases blood sugar levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis
What is the effect of cortisol on blood volume?
It maintains blood volume by preventing water shift into tissues
Study Notes
Thyroid Hormone Synthesis
- Iodine attaches to tyrosine, mediated by peroxidase enzymes, forming T1 (monoiodotyrosine, or MIT) and T2 (diiodotyrosine, or DIT)
- Iodinated tyrosines link together to form T3 and T4
Thyroid Hormone Regulation
- Regulation of thyroid hormones is by negative feedback
- Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) can overcome the negative feedback, especially in pregnancy or exposure of infants to cold
Thyroid Hormone Disorders
- Myxedema: a full-blown hypothyroid syndrome, symptoms include low metabolic rate, feeling chilled, constipation, thick dry skin, puffy eyes, edema, lethargy, and mental sluggishness
- Cretinism, or congenital hypothyroidism, results from thyroid hormone insufficiency in infancy, characterized by mental retardation, short disproportionate body, thick tongue and neck
- Hyperthyroidism, or thyrotoxicosis, occurs when thyroid hormones are produced in excessive quantities, characterized by elevated metabolic rate, sweating, rapid irregular heartbeat, nervousness, and weight loss
Calcitonin
- Regulates electrolyte concentrations of extracellular fluids
- Without mineralocorticoids, potassium ion concentration of the extracellular fluid rises markedly, sodium and chloride are rapidly lost from the body, and the total extracellular fluid volume and blood volume become greatly reduced
Mineralocorticoids - Aldosterone
- Maintains Na+ balance by reducing excretion of sodium from the body
- Stimulates reabsorption of Na+ by the kidneys, and enhances Na+ reabsorption from perspiration, saliva, and gastric juice
- Regulated by four different factors: [K+] and [Na+] of the ECF, renin-angiotensin system, ACTH, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)
Glucocorticoids - Cortisol
- Helps the body resist stress by keeping blood sugar levels relatively constant, maintaining blood volume and preventing water shift into tissue
- Provokes gluconeogenesis, rises in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
- Regulated by ACTH, with negative feedback of cortisol on the hypothalamus and pituitary gland
- Excessive levels of glucocorticoids can lead to Cushing's syndrome, characterized by elevated blood glucose levels, loss of muscle and bone protein, water and salt retention, and redistribution of fat
- Low levels of glucocorticoids can lead to Addison's disease, characterized by decreased glucose and Na+ levels, weight loss, severe dehydration, and hypotension
Gonadocorticoids - Sex Hormones
- Androgens contribute to the onset of puberty, appearance of secondary sex characteristics, and sex drive in females
- Androgens can be converted into estrogens after menopause
Adrenal Medulla
- Made up of chromaffin cells that secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine
- Secretion of these hormones causes blood glucose levels to rise, blood vessels to constrict, the heart to beat faster, and blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle
Other Hormone-Producing Structures
- Heart: produces atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which inhibits aldosterone, reducing blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium concentration
- Placenta: a temporary endocrine organ that releases hormones that influence the course of pregnancy
- Gastrointestinal tract: enteroendocrine cells release local-acting digestive hormones, such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin
- Kidneys: secrete erythropoietin, which signals the production of red blood cells
- Skin: produces cholecalciferol, the precursor of vitamin D
- Adipose tissue: releases leptin, which is involved in the sensation of satiety and stimulates increased energy expenditure
Learn about the process of thyroid hormone synthesis, including the formation of T1, T2, T3, and T4, and how they are regulated by negative feedback. This quiz covers the details of thyroid hormone production and regulation.
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