Theories of Intelligence

Intelligence: Definition and Nature

• Intelligence, according to David Wechsler, is the overall capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.

Factor Theories of Intelligence

• Early psychologists posited a single general factor ('g' factor) underlying mental ability.

Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence - Charles Spearman

• The 'g' factor is a general mental ability factor that is common to all performances.
• The amount of 'g' is determined by cortical energy, influenced by motivation, experience, and environment.
• 's' factor represents specific capabilities for dealing with particular problems.
• Total intelligence is g + s1 + s2 + s3 + s4...

Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory

• Intelligence can't be expressed by only two factors since there are several factors.
• Spearman's idea that separate tasks have nothing in common is not tenable.
• The 's' factors are not mutually exclusive.
• Intelligence is multidimensional and not unitary.

Group Factor Theory, Theory of Primary Mental Abilities - Louis Leon Thurstone

• Certain mental operations share a primary factor that gives them psychological unity.
• Mental abilities form groups, each with its primary factor.
• The understanding is that certain intellectual abilities are common to certain groups.

Primary Mental Abilities

• Verbal Factor (V): Comprehension of verbal relations, words, ideas
• Spatial Factor (S): Ability to imagine manipulation of objects in space.
• Numerical Factor (N): Ability to perform calculations rapidly and accurately.
• Memory Factor (M): Ability to memorize quickly.
• Word Fluency Factor (W): Think of isolated words quickly.
• Inductive Reasoning Factor (RI): Draw conclusions from specific instances.
• Deductive Reasoning Factor (RD): Ability to use generalized results.
• Perceptual Factor (P): Perceive objects accurately.
• Problem-solving factor (PS): Ability to independently solve problems
• Thurstone combined inductive/deductive reasoning into reasoning and problem-solving and memory factors.
• The revised theory contains 7 factors.

Criticisms of Group Factor Theory

• The theory discarded the 'g' factor.

Structure of Intellect Model - Joy Paul Guilford

• Every mental process can be described with three dimensions or parameters.
• Thinking involves contents (what we think about), products (the ideas), and operations (the act of thinking).

Dimensions of Intellect Model

• Operations include evaluation, convergent and divergent thinking, memory, and cognition.
• Contents include figural, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral factors.
• Products include units, classes, relations, transformations, implications, and systems.
• Each factor has a trigram symbol, which means at least one factor from each parameter must be present for intellectual or mental tasks.
• Consists of 180 factors of human intelligence (5x6x6).

Principles of Intellect Model

• Reasoning and problem-solving subdivide into 30 activities (6 products x 5 contents).
• Memory operations subdivide into 30 skills (6 products x 5 contents).
• Decision-making subdivides into 30 abilities (6 products x 5 contents).
• Language-related skills subdivide into 30 abilities (6 products x 5 contents).
• An example would be determining the day of the week using a calendar involving convergent thinking, memory, cognition, semantics(day or date) and relations.

Cognitive Theories of Intelligence

• Cognitive theories try to analyze intelligence based on cognitive processes.

Raymond Cattell and John Horn’s Theory of Intelligence

• Using factor analysis, they proposed two types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized.

Fluid Intelligence (gF)

• Fluid intelligence is the mental capacity for abstract reasoning.
• Problem-solving, recognizing relationships, and identifying patterns require this intelligence.
• Depends on neurological development, and biological and genetic factors.
• Not influenced by education, culture, training, or experience.
• It is used in new and challenging situations that require adaptation, comprehension, reasoning, and problem-solving.
• It reaches its full potential at the end of adolescence.

Crystallized Intelligence (gC)

• Crystallized intelligence is not neurological or innate, but is the ability to recall information from long-term memory(LTM).
• Depends on learning, experience, education, and culture.
• Encompasses acquired general information, knowledge, and skill sets for daily tasks.
• Evident through vocabulary, knowledge of world affairs, customs, traditions, rituals, and practical skills.
• Crystallized intelligence increases throughout lifespan.
• The difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence becomes evident in adulthood because fluid declines, but crystallized does not.

Information Processing Theory of Intelligence/Triarchic Theory - Robert Sternberg

• The information processing approach describes how information is used to complete tasks.
• Sternberg identifies stages of information processing.

Stages of Information Processing

• Encoding: Identifying relevant information.
• Inferring: Drawing necessary inferences.
• Mapping: Establishing relations between past and present situations.
• Application: Applying the inferred relationship.
• Justification: Justifying the analyzed solution.
• Response: Providing the best solution.

Componential/Analytical Intelligence

• Analytical intelligence is defined as the ability to deconstruct problems for problem-solving.
• Meta components include selecting strategies.
• Performance components encompass concept identification and task execution.
• Knowledge-acquisition components involve synthesizing new with old information in a creative manner.

Types of Intelligence Tests

• Individual tests (e.g., Wechsler-III)
• Group tests (e.g., Raven's Progressive Matrices).

Individual Intelligence Tests

• Individual tests are designed for use with one person at a time.
• Individual test example: WAIS, WISC.
• Advantage: The test administrator can get more information about the client’s feelings, moods, and expressions.
• Disadvantages: They are time-consuming, costly, and require expertise.

Group Intelligence Tests

• Group tests can be administered to many people at once.
• Group test examples: Raven's Progressive Matrices.
• Advantages: Economical and allows norms to be estableshed.
• Disadvantage: Examiners have less chance to build the same rapport and so allows an intervering variable to affect results.

Concepts of Intelligence Testing

• Types include mental age, chronological age and intelligence quotient.

Chronological Age (CA)

• CA: Biological age from birth.

Mental Age (MA)

• MA: Intellectual level compared to chronological age.
• Measures as basal age and number of credits earned for passed items.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

• IQ established by William Stern in 1912.
• Reflects the relationship between mental age and actual age.
• IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) * 100

Wechsler-III

• Developed by David Wechsler as an IQ test for adults.
• The test is suitable for both children and adults that includes verbal and performance tests.

Wechsler-III Test Details

• Individual test, takes 65-80 minutes.
• Consists of 6 verbal and 5 nonverbal subtests (requiring minimum language skills).
• Full Scale IQ combines verbal and performance IQs.
• Used for individuals aged 16-89.
• Subtests group tasks of a single kind, increasing in difficulty.
• The next subtest is attempted when the most difficult item on one subtest is completed.

Wechsler-III Verbal Subtests

• Information: Tests factual knowledge (nature, geography, history), comprises 29 items.
• Comprehension: Tests understanding of social conventions, rules, and sayings (14 items).
• Digit Span: Tests simple rote memory (list of numbers).
• Similarities: Tests detecting relationships among concepts (13 items).
• Arithmetic: Tests mathematical reasoning and computation (14 arithmetical problems).
• Vocabulary: Tests defining words of varying difficulty (40 words).

Wechsler-III Performance Subtests

• Picture Arrangement: Arranging pictures to make a sensible story.
• Picture Completion: Identifying missing parts (21 pieces).
• Block Design: Arranging colored blocks to match a design.
• Object Assembly: Solving picture puzzles.
• Digit Symbol: Learning a coding system.

Wechsler-III Scoring

• Yields Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale IQ scores.
• Each subtest has a raw score.

Wechsler-III Uses

• To test individuals lacking verbal skills, with foreign backgrounds, or poor education.
• Provides clues to problem specific areas.
• Has norms for different age groups.
• Diagnosess mental retardation or learning disabilities.
• Provides different IQ scores for Verbal and Performance.
• The test is used to measure the ability to acquire new information or skills.

Raven's Progressive Matrices

• Aims to eliminate cultural bias.
• Attempts to include items suitable for all groups regardless of ethnic or racial background.
• The tests are nonverbal.

Raven's Progressive Matrices Brief History

• Intelligence tests discriminated against minority groups.
• Earlier tests were standardized on middle-class white groups.

Raven's Progressive Matrices Description

• It is a widely used non-verbal intelligence test.
• Test items ask to find the missing pattern in a matrix.
• Each set of items is gets progressively harder.
• It comprises 60 matrices with a part missing.
• Subjects have 6-8 alternatives, and no time limit.
• It is a culture-fair test.
• Measures fluid intelligence, educative ability, and reproductive ability.
• It is a group test.

Raven's Progressive Matrices Test Forms

• Standard Progressive Matrices: (average 6 to 80-year-olds), comprises five sets of 12 items each, arranged in increasing difficulty.
• Coloured Progressive Matrices: For younger children, the elderly, and people with learning difficulties, contains sets A and B and a further set of 12 items (Set Ab).
• Advanced Progressive Matrices: For above-average adolescents & adults, contains 48 items in two sets, the first comprising 12(SetI), the second 36(Set2).

Raven's Progressive Matrices Items

• Items are presented in black ink against a white background.
• The Colored version is on a colored background, but the last few items are in black ink.
• Items in each category are arranged in order of increasing difficulty.

Raven's Progressive Matrices Scoring and Uses

• Raw scores are converted to percentile ranks.
• Used to eliminate cultural bias and predict future school performance.

Levels of Intelligence

• Can be defined by test scores, demonstrated performance, or based on general population.

Giftedness Characteristics

• Those who are intellectually gifted have IQ scores between 130-145.
• Above average physical ability.
• Learn more quickly/easily than peers.
• Frustration can occur if giftedness is not identified.
• Emotional stability, self-sufficiency.
• Display advanced reasoning and creative thinking.
• Comprehend and use humour.
• Displays leadership and ethical development.

Levels of Intelligence - Below Average

• American Association on Mental Deficiency (1983) stated that Significantly below average are when there is intellectual functioning and deficits in adaptive behavior concurrently.

Levels of Retardation (IQ and Prognosis)

• Profound: IQ below 25, mental age till 2 years, completely dependent on others.
• Severe: IQ 25-39, mental age till 4 years, neither educable nor trainable.
• Moderate: IQ 40-54, mental age till 6 years, trainable.
• Mild: IQ 55-69, mental age till 10 years, educable.

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

• A good IQ and scholastic record are not enough to be successful in life.
• Emotional intelligence is monitor your own and other's emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions.

Emotional quotient

• (EQ) is used to express emotional intelligence like IQ for typical intelligence.

Peter Salovey and John Mayer

• First introduced the concept of EI.

5 Key Elements of Emotional Intelligence

• Self-awareness: It includes recognizing that how we feel and what we do are related, and having awareness of one's own personal strengths and limitations
• Self-regulation: It involves the appropriate expression of emotion. Self-regulation includes being flexible, coping with change, and managing conflict. It also refers to being aware of how one's actions affect others and take ownership of these actions.
• Social skills: It refers to interacting well with other people.different social skills include active listening, verbal communication skills, non-verbal communication skills, leadership, and developing rapport.
• Empathy: Refers to being able to understand how other people are feeling.
• Motivation: Relates to intrinsic motivation, where they are able to persist even when facing difficulty.

EI Importance

• They can be nurtured whether at school, at home, or even by the individual.

Aptitude Definitions

• Aptitude: Special abilities in a particular field.
• Aptitude includes special habilities together with a combination specific knowldge/skill and the potential that can be reached after training.
• Used primarily to predict the future performance.

GATB Aptitude Test

• It will measure 9 out of 11 aptitudes that will be used to describe aptitude requirements of occupations.
• It also assumes that aptitude are distributed in population.

General Aptitude Test Battery(GATB) History

• US Employement Services devised it from 1942-1945
• Match the Employee abilty to specific jobs.
• Assesses cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor abilities.

GATB Measurements

• Nine different general aptitude tests.
• Twelve sub-tests, that are timed.
• Eight paper-pencil tests.
• Four apparatus tests for object manipulation.
• Fifty-nine subtests.

GATB General Aptitude Tests and Skills

        G-General Learning Ability: Following the instructions and principles to make good judgement.
        V-Verbal Aptitude: Understand the meaning of the words.
        N-Numerical Aptitude: Perform numerical operations.
        S- Spatial Aptitude: Ability to visualise.
        P-Form Perception:Compare the objects.
        Q-Clerical percepition: Observe the differences and proof read.
        K-Motor Coordination: Hand-eye movement
        F-Finger Dexterity: Ability to manipulate various objects.
        M-Manual Dexterity: Ability to use hands.

GATB Scoring

• The score in the test is reported as perceptual together the abilities.

Aptitude test uses.

• Employment/Vocational purposes
• Predicting of the success of the job..
• Compare perfomances among the children.
• Rehabilitation
• Career councelling
• Highlights and identifies talent.

Achievement Tests

• How the person learned with an instruction: a lot of skills and knowledge learned from grade levels -It usually comprises of two assessments:

  • a lot of skills and knowledge learned from grade levels -Subject knowledge. -An Achievement test will assist in the following ways:

    -Check if there are instructional slackness. also immediate action to ensure that is improved.

    -It is the key of assessing how effective the test instruction is, as well as ensuring that you are progressing in the appropriate direction..

    Special achievement tests and diagnostic tests ensures that individuals are not held back by there learning abilty. Diagnostic tests make it clear so it is not missed to determine the cause and to develop a solution.

  • Vocational/Selection as to whether achievement tests is able to acheive a particaluar job.

  • Evaluation fo teachers and school etc.

Interest Tests

Definition: test to determine what the person likes.

• The tests are able to to estimate the interest ( the amount of interest of the person)

The SCII is used in-

   Vocational counselling, with adolescents and adults.
   Helping in higher education plans.
   Find employees

The psychology regarding selection depends on if someone lacks fit they may have various side effect ( stress and depression).