The Russian Autocracy of 1855

The Russian Autocracy in 1855

• Russia, in 1855, was a large empire (approximately 21 million square kilometers) with diverse ethnic groups, cultures, and religions.
• The empire was primarily unified by the Tsar's authority and the Russian Orthodox Church.

The Political Context

• Russia was an autocracy, headed by a tsar (emperor) with absolute power.
• Tsarist decrees were the law of the land.
• Tsar's authority was supported by the Church, which viewed the Tsar as God's representative on Earth; subjects were mandated to obey the Tsar's decrees as God's will.
• Advisors and ministers were chosen by the Tsar.
• The nobility maintained order on their estates and could serve as provincial governors or in committees appointed by the Tsar.
• A bureaucracy, composed of civil servants with ranks, conveyed orders from the central government to provinces and districts.
• The army, consisting of conscripted serfs (around 1.5 million) comprised around 45% of the government's annual expenditure. The army fulfilled both war-fighting roles and domestic order maintenance functions.
• Russia had a police state with limited freedoms of speech, press, travel and political assembly. Censorship was enforced, political meetings and strikes were forbidden.
• A secret security network, under the Third Section of the Emperor's Imperial Council, had wide-ranging powers to arrest and detain anyone suspected of anti-tsarist activities.

The Economic and Social Context

• Russia's 1855 economy was largely rural, unlike industrial nations like Britain, France, and Germany during the same period.

• The serf-based economy hindered Russia's economic development.

• Serfs were predominantly poor, and with limited opportunities, they often struggled to make ends meet. They worked on communal plots of land, and had limited ability to increase their income.

• Land management systems, and patterns of agricultural production were inflexible and did not support the development of individual farms, or the rise of entrepreneurs.

• Most serfs worked on land owned by others, working for the landowners and paying rent and taxes. Serf living conditions were often primitive, with most lacking literacy. Serfs were often religious and resistant to change.

• There was a very limited coherent middle class.

• The educated elite, largely comprised of sons of the nobility, controlled significant economic and political power.

The Impact of the Crimean War (1853-1856)

• Russia's loss in the Crimean War exposed significant weaknesses in the Russian military, administration, and infrastructure.
• Russia's military and administrative practices were found inadequate, and the lack of a coherent middle class was highlighted.
• The defeat brought about the need for profound changes in Russia, which were instigated by the accession of a new Tsar, Alexander II, and the support of liberal-minded nobles and officials.

Political Developments

• In the 19th century, liberal ideas from the West were gaining popularity, sparking debate about social reform.
• Many Russian intellectuals were advocating for a society based on law.
• Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855) suppressed reform efforts by adhering to autocratic principles, aimed at insulating Russia from Western influences.
• Nicholas I's reign concluded with the Crimean War military defeat. The defeat brought about the need for change, and influenced the policies of the new Tsar, Alexander II, and his officials.