Alexander II's Reforms Overview

Alexander II's Reforms

• Alexander II ascended the throne with the goal of achieving a strong and stable Russia.
• Serfdom was abolished in 1861 and Alexander II went on to push for reforms across various sectors of Russian society.
• Alexander II's reforms aimed at transforming the social and political system, including restructuring central government, local government, the legal system, military, education, censorship, and the economy.

Central Government

• Alexander II relied on assistance to organize and disseminate his will despite being an autocratic Tsar.
• Power remained with the Tsar, with every part of the central government ultimately accountable to him.
• Most of the central government structure remained unchanged.
• Key institutions included:
  • The Third Section of the Personal Chancellery: Secret police.
  • Imperial Council of State: provided legal and financial advice to the Tsar, but could be ignored.
  • Council of Ministers: Appointed officials and discussed draft legislation.
  • Senate: Supreme Court of Russia, acting as the final court of appeal, confirming titles of nobility, and resolving land ownership disputes.
• Changes in the central government:
  • The First and Second Sections of the Personal Chancellery were abolished in 1861.
  • The Committee of Ministers was established, consisting of thirteen ministers each with a responsibility for a specific area of Russian affairs.
  • The four most important ministerial positions were:
    • Minister of the Interior: domestic affairs, law and order
    • Minister for War
    • Minister of Finance
    • Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod: religious affairs
• The ministers had an administrative role, they did not formulate policies and were ultimately accountable to the Tsar.
• A key weakness of the Committee of Ministers was a lack of inter-ministerial consultation leading to conflicting policies.

Local Government

• Alexander II implemented reforms to local government, aiming for greater efficiency but without appearing to yield to public pressure for reform.
• In 1859, calls for an independent judiciary, local government independent of the bureaucracy, and an elected body for economic affairs by nobles from the Tver province were suppressed.
• In 1862, nobles from the Tver province calling for a national assembly were imprisoned.
• The zemstva, local elected councils, were established in 1864.
• Powers of the zemstva:
  • Public education, health, local economic development, road building, provision of services like water and fire prevention.
• The zemstva were two-tiered: district (uezd) and provincial (gubernia).
• Membership of the zemstva:
  • District zemstva: 45% nobility, 40% peasants, 15% townsmen and clergy.
• The zemstva did not treat all groups equally, with local taxation continuing to favor the nobility over the peasantry.
• The zemstva's success in improving local administration demonstrated the people's capability, leading to arguments for extending representative principles to the central government.

Legal Reform

• The Russian judicial system was in need of reform due to inefficiency, corruption, and lack of training.
• The legal reform of 1864 sought to:
  • Eliminate corruption and improve fairness through high salaries for judges, public trials, trial by jury, and appeal courts.
  • Prioritize oral evidence and cross-examination in open court.
• The Judicial system had two tiers:
  • Justices of the Peace: elected by district zemstva for three years.
  • Judges: nominated by the Tsar and guaranteed independence.
• The Vera Zasulich case in 1878, a case where an admitted revolutionary was found not guilty, demonstrated the independence of the judiciary, despite ongoing limitations like administrative arrest and special courts for certain crimes.
• The reforms led to the creation of an independent bar, fostering a group of individuals trained in persuasion, knowledgeable about law and bureaucracy, and inclined towards liberal ideas.
• This contributed to the emergence of future revolutionaries.

Military Reforms

• The shortcomings of the Russian Military, evident in the Crimean War, were highlighted by its failure to defeat inferior foreign forces on Russian territory.
• The military's shortcomings were attributed to:
  • Inflexible and inefficient administration and command structure.
  • Severe and barbaric punishments.
  • 25-year service for conscripts.
  • Emphasis on parade ground performance over combat readiness.
• Miliutin, appointed Minister of War in 1861, focused on:
  • Humanizing the military and improving efficiency.
  • Decentralizing administration and supply through regional commands.
  • Ending extreme corporal punishment and revising the Military Code.
  • Establishing Junker schools open to all, fostering meritocratic selection over privilege and patronage.
  • Reducing the length of compulsory service for conscripts.
• These reforms faced opposition from traditionalists and conservative elements, but the Prussian army's success in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870-71 provided a compelling case for reform.

Education

• Before 1861, education was strictly controlled.
• Golvonin, appointed Minister of Education in 1861, focused on expanding primary education through the zemstva and duma and freeing schools from the control of the Church.
• The University Regulations of 1863 granted universities:
  • Virtual autonomy in administrative matters.
  • Greater freedom in curriculum presentation and treatment.
  • The right to import scholarly texts duty-free.
  • Exemption from censorship for texts from foreign countries.

Censorship

• Censorship under Nicholas I was extreme, complex, and harsh.
• Alexander II initially relaxed censorship but tightened it in 1863.
• The Press Laws of 1865 relaxed censorship, allowing freedom from preliminary censorship for:
  • All existing periodical publications in St Petersburg and Moscow, upon publisher request.
  • Original writings over 160 pages.
  • Government publications.
  • Publications of academics, universities, and learned societies.
  • Publications in ancient languages and translations from those languages.
  • Sketches, diagrams, and maps.
• However, the Press Laws retained the power to issue warnings to publications, with a third warning leading to suspension for up to six months.
• While censorship remained stricter than modern Western standards, it was still a significant increase in freedom of ideas and expression compared to the previous regime.

Economic Reform

• Reutern, Minister of Finance from 1862 to 1878, focused on:
  • Streamlining the fiscal organization of the state.
  • Establishing a railway network, expanding from less than 700 miles of track to 2,194 miles by 1866.
  • Developing and expanding financial institutions.
  • Modernizing and streamlining the fiscal organization of the state.

Financial Institutions

• Between 1855 and 1878, there was a substantial increase in financial institutions in Russia.
• This increase was largely attributed to the policies of the Minister of Finance, Michael von Reutern.
• The Russian economy lacked access to capital, which hampered its growth. The growth of Financial institutions made this easier, but did not solve the problem.

Jewish Restrictions

• Jews in Russia faced significant restrictions in terms of their movement and trade.
• Until 1855, they were confined to the "Pale of Settlement", which restricted their ability to contribute to the Russian economy.
• Alexander II loosened these restrictions allowing Jewish merchants and soldiers to live and trade throughout the Empire.
• The most impactful change was the abolishment of the Pale for Jewish Artisans in 1865.
• This change was motivated by economic considerations, despite continuing anti-Semitism.

Alexander II’s Reforms

• The reforms undertaken by Alexander II, including those impacting the Jewish community, resulted in significant progress for Russia.
• These reforms faced challenges and resistance from various groups, including the Russian intellectuals.
• The intelligentsia were influential opinion leaders, and their opposition had a negative impact on Alexander II’s rule.