The Roots and Causes of Imperialism

The Roots of Imperialism

• In the late 1800s, the U.S. shifted from isolationism and started acquiring territories and influence abroad.

Causes of Imperialism

• The Age of Imperialism was a period from the mid-1800s to the early 1900s when powerful nations expanded their control over weaker territories
• Imperialism involves extending political, military, and economic control over weaker territories.
• European nations and Japan looked to colonies to secure raw materials like tea, rubber, iron, and petroleum for their industries.
• Colonial economies served as extractive economies, where resources were removed and shipped to the home country.
• The U.S. had a surplus of goods due to its booming economy in the late 1800s.
• Expanding trade into overseas markets became important to sell American commodities.
• Senator Albert J. Beveridge argued that the U.S. needed to find new markets for its products, capital, and labor.

Imperialist Military Strength

• Imperialist nations expanded and strengthened their military to protect interests worldwide.
• Alfred T. Mahan advocated for a strong modern navy and the acquisition of foreign bases for refueling and supplies.
• By 1900, the U.S. had the third largest navy in the world.

Beliefs Justifying Imperialism

• Ideas of racial, national, and cultural superiority led to the justification of imperialism.
• Social Darwinism was applied to nations and races, asserting that superior ones were destined to rule over inferior ones.
• Josiah Strong argued that Americans had a duty to spread Western values and civilize weaker races.
• American missionaries traveled to foreign lands to convert people to Christianity.
• Overseas expansion was seen as a way to maintain a "safety valve" for ambitious Americans, replacing the closed frontier (Frederick Jackson Turner).

First Steps Toward World Power

• The U.S. expanded its trade and acquired territories beginning in the mid-1800s.
• Commodore Matthew Perry opened Japan to trade in 1853, ending its isolation.
• In 1867, the U.S. took possession of the Midway Islands.
• Treaties with Hawaii in 1875 and 1887 increased trade and allowed the U.S. to build a naval base at Pearl Harbor.
• William Seward purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
• Alaska's resources and strategic location proved valuable (timber, oil, as well as expansion accross the Pacific)

Influence in Latin America

• U.S. businessmen sought to expand trade and investments in Latin America.
• Secretary of State James Blaine organized the First International Pan-American Conference to promote economic cooperation.
• A border dispute between British Guiana and Venezuela led to tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain in 1895.
• The U.S. asserted its influence under the Monroe Doctrine, and Britain eventually accepted a growing U.S. presence in Latin America

Acquiring Hawaii

• American merchant ships had stopped at Hawaii since the 1790s.
• American missionaries and sugar cane plantations were established in Hawaii.
• In 1887, American planters limited King Kalakaua's power with a new constitution, restricting voting rights to wealthy landowners (white planters).
• The U.S. had increased their power by the early 1890s
• A new U.S. tariff law imposed duties on Hawaiian sugar, making it more expensive.
• Queen Liliuokalani, a Hawaiian nationalist, resented the power of white planters and tried to restore power to native rule which ultimately led to the aboloshment of the constitution that gave minorities politial power.
• American planters overthrew the queen with the backing of U.S. officials and U.S. Marines in 1893.
• The new government, led by Sanford B. Dole, requested annexation by the U.S.
• President Harrison signed the annexation treaty, but it was not approved by the Senate under President Cleveland.
• Cleveland apologized for the wrongful actions of the American minister.
• In 1898, after the Spanish-American War began, Congress proclaimed Hawaii an official U.S. territory.

Spanish-American War

• By the end of the nineteenth century, Spain's vast empire had dwindled to a small number of possessions, including the Philippine Islands in the Pacific and the Caribbean islands of Puerto Rico and Cuba.

Causes of the War

• Cubans sought freedom with cries of "Cuba Libre!"
• Cuban rebels, led by José Martí, used guerrilla tactics against Spanish forces, while the Spanish, led by General Valeriano Weyler, responded with reconcentration camps.
• Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst heightened the public's dislike of the Spanish government.
• President William McKinley sent the battleship Maine to Havana harbor to protect American citizens in Cuba.
• The Journal published a letter stolen by Cuban rebels written by Enrique Dupuy de Lôme in February 1898.
• The letter called McKinley a weak and stupid politician, fueling American jingoism.
• The Maine exploded in Havana harbor shortly after the de Lôme letter publication
• 266 officers and crew died
• While Spain first agreed to abolish the reconcentration camps and make other concessions, it was too little too late.
• Congress enacted resolutions amounting to a declaration of war on Spain on April 1989.

The Nation Goes to War

• Most people blamed Spain for the Maine explosion, leading to war fever in the U.S.

American Troops Battle the Spanish

• About 200,000 men enlisted in the army.
• Commodore George Dewey led his squadron of vessels to Manila Bay in the Philippines and destroyed the Spanish fleet.
• Emilio Aguinaldo and Filipino nationalists defeated the Spanish army in the Philippines.
• 15,000 U.S. soldiers had landed on the islands, after which, Spanish troops surrendered to the United States.
• U.S. Marines captured Guantánamo Bay in June 1898.
• 17,000 soldiers, led by General William Shafter, landed east of Santiago where they faced many deplorable conditions due to poor training and suplies.
• Heavy wool worn by soldiers in tropical climate and poor sanitation led to great contamination adn disease.
• Theodore Roosevelt's Rough Riders consisting of rugged westerners and upper-class easterners played a heavy role in the battles for Kettle and San Juan.
• African American soldiers from the Ninth and Tenth Cavalries joined the Riders in securing high ground around Santiago.
• After the battle of San Juan Hill, the Spanish navy attempted to escape from Santiago's harbor, but U.S. forces destroyed the Spanish fleet.
• Spanish forces in Santiago surrendered; another Spanish possession ended the fighting had come to an end.

Effects of War

• The ease and thoroughness of America's victory to the conflict with Spain as a "splendid little war"
• The conflict with Spain created a new dilemma for Americans: What should the United States do with Spain's former possessions? Spain relinquished control of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam.
• The United States purchased the Philippines for $20 million.
• The Teller Amendment prevented the U.S. from taking possession of Cuba, but did not apply to the Philippines.

American Debate Imperialism

• President McKinley supported taking control of the Filipinos to "educate, uplift, and civilize."
• Supporters believed the U.S. had a responsibility to govern the Filipinos (like trading in China), while anti-imperialists rejected their arguments.
• Anti-imperialists were against the Americans for taking control.
• America assumed a new role by 1900 as Roosevelt emphasized the overwhelming U.S. victory over Spain and signaled America's faith in his imperialist policies
• McKinley soundly defeated Bryan the president election resulting ina win for imperialism..
• The Spanish-American War had now turned the United States into an empire.