The First Fitna and Sunni-Shia Split

The First Fitna and the Sunni-Shia Split

• Divisions over leadership after the Prophet Muhammad's death in 632 CE marked the early period of Islam
• The First Fitna (656-661 CE) was the main conflict that shaped these divisions.
• The First Fitna resulted in the Sunni-Shia split and long-lasting sectarianism
• Sunnis believed the leader (Caliph) should be chosen by consensus after Muhammad's death
• Shia Muslims believed leadership should stay within the Prophet's family, starting with Ali ibn Abi Talib.
• The conflict escalated with the assassination of the third Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, and Ali becoming the fourth Caliph.
• Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, opposed Ali, leading to battles (the Battle of the Camel (656 CE) and the Battle of Siffin (657 CE).
• Ali's rule was weakened by arbitration, he was assassinated in 661 CE
• Leadership shifted to a dynasty when Muawiya established the Umayyad Caliphate
• Sunnis accepted the Caliphate, while Shia Muslims continued to support Ali's descendants as rightful Imams
• Divisions deepened further, with the Battle of Karbala (680 CE) where Ali's son Husayn was martyred
• The radical Kharijites emerged, rejecting both Sunni and Shia leadership.
• The First Fitna set the foundation for Sunni-Shia tensions and transformed Islamic governance
• This was one of the most significant conflicts in early Islamic history

The Abbasid Empire

• The Abbasid Empire (750-1258 CE) marked a transformative period in Islamic history
• The Golden Age (8th-10th centuries CE) era was defined by political stability, economic prosperity, and major advancements in science, philosophy, and culture
• The Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in 750 CE and moved the capital to Baghdad
• Baghdad became a global center of learning and trade
• Under rulers like Harun al-Rashid (786-809 CE) and Al-Ma'mun (786-809 CE), the empire flourished
• The Abbasids supported intellectual advances at the House of Wisdom
• Fields like medicine, astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy were expanded by scholars who translated Greek, Persian, and Indian texts

Key Achievements of the Golden Age

• Science advancements were made by scholars like Al-Razi (medicine) and Al-Khwarizmi (mathematics, algebra)
• Philosophers such as Al-Farabi and Avicenna engaged with Greek philosophy
• Literature thrived with works like One Thousand and One Nights
• Vast trade networks connected China, India, Africa, and Europe, fostering economic growth

Formation Period of Islam Under Prophet Muhammad

• Islam’s formation began in the early 7th century CE in Mecca
• Prophet Muhammad (570-632 CE) received divine revelations from Allah through the angel Jibril (Gabriel) at this time
• These revelations were compiled into the Qur'an, establishing the foundations of Islamic belief and practice

Early Preaching and Opposition (610-622 CE)

• In 610 CE, Muhammad received his first revelation at the Cave of Hira which marked the beginning of his prophetic mission
• Muhammad preached monotheism, social justice, and rejection of idol worship
• This challenged the ruling Quraysh tribe that controlled Mecca's economy through the Kaaba
• Facing persecution, Muhammad and his followers migrated to Medina in 622 CE, known as the Hijra marking of the Islamic calendar

State-Building in Medina and Conflict with Mecca (622-630 CE)

• Muhammad formed the Constitution of Medina, which united Muslims, Jews, and other tribes under his leadership
• A series of battles followed Muslims and the Quraysh, including the Battle of Badr (624 CE), the Battle of Uhud (625 CE), and the Battle of the Trench (627 СЕ).
• Muhammad and his followers peacefully conquered Mecca in 630 CE
• The Kaaba was cleansed of idols, solidifying Islam's presence in Arabia

Final Years and Legacy (630-632 CE)

• Muhammad continued spreading Islam and uniting Arabian tribes under Islamic rule
• He delivered his Farewell Sermon and passed away in 632 CE, leaving behind a rapidly expanding religious and political community
• The formation period of Islam under Muhammad laid the groundwork for Islamic beliefs, laws, and governance shaping of a religious and political system

The Five Pillars of Islam

• The Five Pillars of Islam act as fundamental acts of worship and practice which shape the faith and daily lives of Muslims
• Shahada (Faith) – The declaration is that "There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger."
• Salah (Prayer) – Performing five daily prayers facing Mecca
• Zakat (Charity) – Giving a portion of one's wealth to the poor and needy
• Sawm (Fasting) – Observing the fast during Ramadan, from dawn to sunset
• Hajj (Pilgrimage) – Pilgrims are obligated to perform the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once if able

Jihad: Its Meanings and Interpretations

• Jihad is an important concept in Islam which means “struggle” or “striving”
• Greater Jihad (Spiritual Struggle) refers to the internal struggle to maintain faith, resist sin, and follow Islamic teachings in daily life
• Lesser Jihad (Physical Struggle) refers to the defense of Islam, which can include military efforts under strict ethical guidelines
• Personal and moral self-improvement (greater jihad) is more important than lesser jihad
• The Five Pillars guide personal and communal religious life while jihad represents the ongoing struggle spiritually and defensively to uphold the faith

The Rise and Fall of the Ottoman Empire

• The long-lasting Ottoman Empire (1299-1922) spanned over six centuries
• Military conquests and administrative strength marked its rise; its decline resulted from internal weaknesses and external pressures

Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299-1600s)

• The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey)
• The Ottomans expanded into the Balkans and defeated the Byzantine Empire and rival empires
• In 1453, Mehmed II (Mehmed the Conqueror) captured Constantinople and renamed it Istanbul
• Istanbul become the empire's capital

Golden Age (1500s-1600s)

• The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566)
• The peak included controlling parts of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa
• The empire became a global power with a strong military (Janissaries), an efficient bureaucracy, and a flourishing economy
• Istanbul became a center of art, science, and architecture, with landmarks like the Suleymaniye Mosque

Decline and Fall of the Ottoman Empire (1600s-1922)

• The once-powerful Janissaries became corrupt and ineffective contributing to military weakness
• European trade routes bypassed the Ottomans, weakening their economy
• Sultans became less capable, and internal power struggles weakened governance
• The empire lost lands in Europe and North Africa to rising European powers

Final Collapse (1900s-1922)

• The empire sided with Germany in World War I (1914-1918) and suffered a major defeat
• The Treaty of Sèvres (1920) partitioned much of the empire's territory
• The last Ottoman Sultan, Mehmed VI, was deposed in 1922
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk established the Republic of Turkey in 1923, officially ending the Ottoman Empire

Explore the roots of the Sunni-Shia split traced back to early Islamic leadership disputes after Prophet Muhammad. The First Fitna (656-661 CE) intensified divisions with the assassination of Uthman and the conflict between Ali and Muawiya. This schism shaped enduring sectarian identities.