The Experiential 'I' and Self-Concept 'Me'

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Questions and Answers

Describe how the 'looking-glass self' concept influences the development of an individual's self-concept.

The looking-glass self suggests that our self-concept is significantly shaped by how we perceive others view us; we imagine how we appear to others, interpret their reactions, and develop a sense of self based on these interpreted appraisals.

How do individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in how they define identity?

Individualistic cultures define identity through personal traits and achievements, emphasizing independence. Collectivistic cultures define identity through social connections and group membership, emphasizing interdependence.

Explain how self-esteem differs from self-efficacy.

Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one's own worth or value. Self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

Briefly describe Rotter's locus of control and distinguish between an internal and external locus.

<p>Locus of control refers to the extent to which individuals believe they have control over events in their lives. An internal locus believes events are due to their own actions, while an external locus believes events are due to external forces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can repeated use of self-control over extended periods actually strengthen self-regulation?

<p>Repeatedly practicing self-control gradually enhances one's capacity for self-regulation over time, similar to how muscles strengthen with exercise. This builds a more robust ability to manage impulses and behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the 'better-than-average' effect and give an example of how it manifests.

<p>The 'better-than-average' effect is the tendency to overestimate one's own positive qualities and abilities relative to others. For example, most people believe they are more honest or more skilled drivers than the average person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the false consensus effect, and why does it occur?

<p>The false consensus effect is the tendency to overestimate how common one's own opinions, undesirable behaviors, or failures are. It occurs because people are most exposed to those who share their views and assume broader agreement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'false uniqueness' and provide an example.

<p>False uniqueness is the tendency to underestimate how common one's abilities or desirable behaviors and successes are, believing oneself to be more unique than one actually is. An example is believing you are the only person who volunteers in your community.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can memory be influenced by the desire to maintain a positive self-image?

<p>Memory can be selectively recalled or distorted to align with a positive self-image, leading individuals to remember events in a way that enhances their self-esteem or confirms their beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the findings of Nisbett & Wilson's research on self-knowledge related to explaining our own behavior.

<p>Nisbett &amp; Wilson found that people often have limited awareness of the actual causes of their behavior and often generate explanations that are based on cultural schemas or plausible theories, rather than accurate introspection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to self-perception theory, how do we infer our attitudes and feelings?

<p>According to self-perception theory, we infer our attitudes and feelings by observing our own behavior and the context in which it occurs, especially when our initial feelings are ambiguous or weak.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how facial feedback research supports self-perception theory.

<p>Facial feedback research supports self-perception theory by demonstrating that our facial expressions can influence our emotions, suggesting that we infer our feelings partly from our facial movements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the overjustification effect and its impact on intrinsic motivation.

<p>The overjustification effect occurs when giving extrinsic rewards for activities that are already intrinsically motivating leads to a decrease in intrinsic motivation once the rewards are removed. Individuals attribute motivation to the reward rather than inherent enjoyment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does social comparison theory explain how we evaluate ourselves?

<p>Social comparison theory suggests we evaluate ourselves by comparing ourselves to others, especially those who are similar to us. This helps us assess our abilities and opinions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between upward and downward social comparisons.

<p>Upward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to those who are better than us, which can motivate improvement but also lower self-esteem. Downward social comparisons involve comparing ourselves to those who are worse, which can boost self-esteem but may hinder motivation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the two-factor theory of emotion.

<p>The two-factor theory of emotion states that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive label. First, we experience arousal, then we seek to explain it by attributing it to an environmental stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the 'Suproxin' study by Schachter and Singer (1962) supports the two-factor theory of emotion.

<p>The 'Suproxin' study supported the two-factor theory by showing that participants injected with epinephrine (arousal) experienced different emotions depending on whether they were informed about the effects of the injection or were paired with a euphoric or hostile confederate; uninformed participants mirrored the confederate's emotion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is misattribution of arousal, and how was it demonstrated in the Dutton & Aron (1974) study?

<p>Misattribution of arousal is the process by which people make a mistake in assuming what is causing them to feel aroused. In the Dutton &amp; Aron study, men on a high, wobbly bridge misattributed their fear-induced arousal as attraction to a female experimenter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the spotlight effect and provide an example of how it might manifest in a social situation.

<p>The spotlight effect is the belief that others are paying more attention to our appearance and behavior than they actually are. For example, someone might overestimate how much others notice a minor stain on their shirt.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the illusion of transparency and how it relates to social interactions.

<p>The illusion of transparency is the tendency to overestimate how easily others can read our internal thoughts and feelings. This can lead to frustration in social interactions when others don't understand us as well as we think they should.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is self-handicapping, and why do people engage in it?

<p>Self-handicapping is creating an excuse for possible future failure by engaging in behaviors that undermine one's own performance. People do this to protect their self-esteem by attributing failure to external factors (the handicap) rather than their own lack of ability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define 'false modesty' and explain its purpose as a self-presentational strategy.

<p>False modesty is presenting oneself as humble or downplaying one's accomplishments, even when knowing they are significant. This is done as a self-presentational strategy to appear likeable and avoid seeming arrogant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can a moderate level of self-serving biases be considered adaptive?

<p>A moderate level of self-serving biases can be adaptive because it promotes psychological well-being, resilience, and motivation by creating a positive self-image and fostering optimism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'depressive realism' and how it contrasts with self-enhancing biases.

<p>Depressive realism is the tendency for individuals with depression to have a more accurate, albeit often negative, perception of themselves and the world, lacking the self-enhancing biases that characterize non-depressed individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did Sackheim & Gur assess self-deception in their research, and what were their findings?

<p>Sackheim &amp; Gur assessed self-deception using an &quot;embarrassing admissions&quot; measure. They found that those who scored highest in self-deception were better off psychologically, socially, and physically.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how self-serving biases can become problematic in group settings or relationships.

<p>Self-serving biases can become problematic when individuals take a disproportionate share of credit for successes and less blame for failures, leading to conflict, resentment, and inequitable distribution of responsibilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'threatened egotism' and its relationship to high self-esteem.

<p>Threatened egotism refers to the tendency for individuals with inflated self-esteem to react aggressively when their positive self-views are challenged. It suggests that high self-esteem, when unstable, can lead to defensiveness and hostility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of self-perception, how might offering a reward to someone who already enjoys drawing affect their future interest in drawing, and why?

<p>Offering a reward may decrease their interest due to the overjustification effect. They might attribute their motivation to the reward rather than intrinsic enjoyment, diminishing their desire to draw when the reward is removed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might an individual use downward social comparison to cope with a setback, such as receiving a lower grade than expected on an exam?

<p>They might compare themselves to others who performed even worse on the exam. This can boost their self-esteem and help minimize negative feelings about their own performance, even though it doesn't address the actual issue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does the misattribution of arousal contribute to feelings of attraction and love?

<p>When arousal from an external source (e.g., fear, excitement) is misattributed to the presence of another person, it can intensify feelings of attraction. The heightened physiological state is interpreted as romantic interest.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Imagine a scenario where a student consistently performs poorly on tests despite studying. How might they exhibit self-handicapping behavior?

<p>The student might start procrastinating or partying the night before exams, creating an external excuse (lack of preparation) for their poor performance rather than attributing it to a lack of academic ability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Consider a person who receives praise for a project at work. How might they employ false modesty in their response, and what would be the purpose of such behavior?

<p>They might say that the project's success was due to luck or the efforts of their team, rather than taking full credit themselves. The purpose is to present themselves as likeable and avoid appearing arrogant or boastful to colleagues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would someone with an external locus of control likely explain their success in a game of chance, compared to someone with an internal locus of control?

<p>Someone with an external locus of control would likely attribute their success to luck or fate, while someone with an internal locus of control would attribute it to their skill or strategy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can understanding the 'spotlight effect' impact a person's behavior or mindset in social situations?

<p>Understanding the spotlight effect can reduce anxiety and self-consciousness in social situations, as one realizes that people are generally less focused on them than they perceive, facilitating more relaxed and authentic interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of the 'illusion of transparency' impact communication in close relationships?

<p>The illusion of transparency can lead to misunderstandings and conflict because individuals assume their partners should intuitively know their thoughts and feelings. It often results in disappointment when assumptions are not met, highlighting the need for clear communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of cultural differences in self-concept, how might an advertisement appeal differently to an individualistic versus a collectivistic audience?

<p>An advertisement targeting an individualistic audience might highlight personal achievement and uniqueness, whereas an advertisement targeting a collectivistic audience might emphasize community benefits and social harmony.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can repeated efforts at self-regulation in one area of life potentially impact self-control abilities in other, unrelated areas?

<p>Repeated efforts may strengthen overall self-regulatory capacity. For example, consistently practicing self-control in dieting may bleed over into other areas, like managing finances or improving study habits, as the fundamental skills become more developed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the potential ethical implications of leveraging the 'better-than-average' effect in leadership roles.

<p>If leaders overestimate their abilities, it can lead to overconfidence, a diminished sense of accountability, and a reluctance to seek or accept feedback, potentially harming team performance and decision-making.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Considering both the false consensus and false uniqueness effects, how do these biases influence political polarization and social divisions?

<p>The false consensus effect magnifies beliefs about widespread support for one's own views, while the false uniqueness effect reinforces perceived differences. These effects exacerbate perceived divisions, creating echo chambers and reducing empathy for opposing views.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

James' I

Experiential consciousness; the self as knower and actor.

James' Me

The self-concept; the self as an object of thought and evaluation.

Looking-glass self

The idea that our self-concept is significantly influenced by how we imagine others see us.

Independent self-concept

A self-concept where identity is defined by individual traits and goals.

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Interdependent self-concept

A self-concept where identity is defined by connections with others and social responsibilities.

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Self-Esteem

Overall evaluation of your value and competency.

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Self-Efficacy

Belief about one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task.

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Self-Control

The capacity to regulate one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts in the face of temptations and impulses.

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False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions or undesirable behaviors.

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False Uniqueness Effect

Underestimating how common one's abilities or desirable behaviors are.

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"Better-Than-Average" Effect

A cognitive bias where people overestimate their good qualities and underestimate their negative qualities, compared to others.

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Barnum Effect

The tendency to believe positive descriptions about oneself are true, even if they are vague and general.

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Self-Perception Theory

A theory that we infer our attitudes and feelings by observing our own behavior and circumstances.

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Overjustification Effect

The principle that rewards for enjoyable activities can decrease intrinsic motivation.

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Social Comparison

Evaluating oneself by comparing to similar people.

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Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

When experiencing arousal, we interpret and label it based on situational cues.

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Misattribution of Arousal

Mistakenly attributing arousal to the wrong source.

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Spotlight Effect

Overestimating how much others notice and evaluate our appearance and actions.

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Illusion of Transparency

Overestimating the degree to which our internal states are obvious to others (thinking they can easily read us).

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Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles or excuses in advance of an event to explain away possible failure.

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False Modesty

Expressing gratitude or humility to appear modest, even when one is proud.

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Study Notes

  • James distinguished between the 'I' (experiential consciousness) and the 'Me' (self-concept).
  • The "looking-glass self" refers to the concept of reflected appraisals, where individuals perceive themselves based on how they believe others perceive them

Cultural Differences in Self-Concept

  • "Me thinking" and "We thinking" represent cultural differences in self-concept, with Western cultures fostering an independent view of the self as a unique individual separate from others
  • Asian cultures encourage an interdependent view of the self as part of an interconnected social matrix
  • Western cultures foster an independent view of the self as a unique individual who is separate from others
  • Asian cultures encourage an interdependent view of the self as part of an interconnected social matrix
  • The interdependent view leads people to define themselves in terms of their social relationships
  • Independent self-concept is personal, defined by individual traits and goals.
  • Independent self-concept emphasizes personal achievement, fulfillment, rights, and liberties.
  • Independent self-concept disapproves of conformity and sees "To thine own self be true" as an illustrative motto.
  • Individualistic Western cultures support independent self-concept
  • Interdependent self-concept is social, defined by connections with others with an interdependent self-concept.
  • Interdependent self-concept emphasizes group goals, solidarity, social responsibilities, and relationships.
  • Interdependent self-concept disapproves of egotism and uses "No one is an island" as an illustrative motto.
  • Collectivistic Asian and Third World cultures support interdependent self-concept

Beliefs About the Self

  • Self-esteem is a global evaluation (affective judgment) about one's value and competency
  • Sample items from Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale include statements like "I feel that I am a person of worth" and "At times I think I am no good at all."
  • Rotter's Locus of Control and Bandura's Self-Efficacy are also beliefs about the self

Sample Items from a Self-Efficacy Scale:

  • "When I make plans, I am certain that I can make them work."
  • "When I decide to do something, I go right to work at it."
  • "I am a self-reliant person."

Self-Regulation

  • Self-control (aka, self-regulation)
  • Self-control is a limited capacity resource that can be "exhausted” in the short-term (glucose expenditure?).
  • Repeated use/practice of self-control over extended periods can strengthen or expand the capacity
  • Self-control is associated with favorable social/psychological outcomes
  • The "Better than average" effect is a cognitive bias where people tend to rate themselves as above average in various positive traits compared to their peers

Other Self-Enhancing Biases

  • False Consensus is overestimating the commonality of one's opinions or undesirable behaviors/failures.
  • False Uniqueness is underestimating the commonality of one's abilities or desirable behaviors/successes
  • Unrealistic Optimism is biased viewpoints
  • The Barnum effect is a phenomenon where people believe flattering statements about themselves

Self-Knowledge

  • Considers how well individuals remember their own attitudes, emotions, and behavior
  • Addresses capability to explain preferences,behaviors, causes, and its consequences.
  • Individuals may struggle to accurately recall past attitudes and emotions
  • People may not fully understand the reasons behind their own preferences and behaviors

Remembering Our Own Attitudes

  • A study from Markus in 1986, regarding remembering 1973 in 1982, people may misremember their past attitudes
  • "Vanity plays lurid tricks with our memory” (J. Conrad)
  • “It is necessary to remember that events happened in the desired manner” (G. Orwell)
  • “The easiest person to deceive is one's self” (Edward Bulwer-Lytton)

Remembering Our Own Emotions

  • A study from McFarland et al. in 1989 regarding menstruation, recalled mood, and actual mood found individuals may misremember their past emotions.
  • Nisbett & Wilson's studies explored people's awareness of the causes of their behavior
  • With "The multiple-choice dilemma," on tests students and professors believe its best to trust first choice
  • Only 11% believe changing ones answer helps score

Answer Changing Dilemma

  • Only 20% of changed answers go from right to wrong
  • When actually changing answers 58% go from wrong to right
  • When actually changing answers 22% go from wrong to wrong

Self-Perception Theory

  • Attitudes and feelings are inferred through observation of one's own behavior, considering context
  • Facial and Kinesthetic feedback studies explore the evaluation of stimuli and emotional states.
  • Overjustification effect explains inferring extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation

Facial Feedback Research

  • Positive mood, favorable evaluation of neutral stimuli.
  • Negative mood, unfavorable evaluation of neutral stimuli

Overjustification Effect

  • States if someone is rewarded for doing something enjoyable, they will do it less (or less well) once the reward stops, compared to no reward being given

Social Comparison

  • Evaluating ourselves by comparing with others who serve as standards
  • Upward and Downward comparisons occur
  • In ambiguous situations, other people's behavior (or performance) is a useful source of information

The 2-Factor Theory of Emotion

  • Physiological arousal experienced first.
  • Attribution for it is interpreted based on cues from the environment and other people

Suproxin Study by Schachter & Singer in 1962

  • Ss rec'd placebo or epinephrine.
  • Ss informed or not informed of effect.
  • Ss paired with hostile or euphoric confederate

Misattribution of Arousal : Dutton & Aron, 1974

  • Half the men crossed a low, secure bridge.
  • Half the men crossed a high, wobbly bridge

Emotion & Misattribution - Fear or Sexual Attraction?

  • Dutton & Aron studied how fear can be misattributed as sexual attraction

Self-Presentational Phenomena: Impression Management

  • Spotlight effect: Overestimating the extent to which actions/appearance are noticed by and affect others.
  • Illusion of Transparency: Overestimating others' accuracy in reading thoughts and feelings.
  • Self-handicapping: Creating an excuse for possible future failure
  • False modesty involves expression of gratitude for success

Big Picture: Bias Toward Self

  • Biases exert themselves when information is ambiguous or lacking, or judgments are subjective.
  • Motives are multiple: accuracy, homeostasis (self-verification), self-enhancement.
  • The self is social, defined in part by and subject to the influence of others, as individuals and as groups.
  • A little self-serving deception may be adaptive with benefits of unrealistic optimism
  • Depressive realism exists

Is Self-Deception Beneficial?

  • Sackheim & Gur assessed Self-Deception with “embarrassing admissions” measure.
  • Those scoring highest in self-deception were better off psychologically, socially, and physically
  • 90% of managers believe themselves to be better than their peers.
  • In marriages, women believe they do 70% of the housework but men say they do 45%.
  • When groups succeed, members take a disproportionate share of credit; when they fail, members take less than proportionate share of blame.
  • Low SE is associated with anti-social, especially aggressive, behavior...or is it?.
  • Violent criminals, bullies, and perpetrators of genocide have high self-appraisals and believe themselves superior to others.
  • Inflated SE may lead to threatened egotism, with the result being a sense of offense, disrespect, or injustice

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