The Enlightenment

• The Enlightenment was an 18th-century philosophical movement emphasizing reason and the scientific method to improve society.
• Enlightenment thinkers sought to make progress toward a better society using the scientific method.
• Key principles included reason, natural law, hope, and progress.
• These ideas became a catalyst for reform and revolution.

Influences

• John Locke's concept of tabula rasa (blank mind) suggested that experiences shape individuals and society.
• Isaac Newton's "world machine" concept implied natural laws govern both the physical world and human society.
• Applying scientific methods to discover these laws could lead to an ideal society.

The Philosophes

• Philosophes were intellectuals, writers, professors, journalists, economists, and social reformers, primarily from the nobility and middle class.
• Though inspired by English thought, the French philosophes led the movement across the Western world.
• Philosophy's role was to change the world through reason and rational criticism in religion and politics.
• Prominent figures included Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot.

Montesquieu

• Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, studied governments to find natural laws governing social and political relationships.
• He believed England's government had three branches: executive (monarch), legislative (Parliament), and judicial (courts).
• Separation of powers with checks and balances prevents any one branch from dominating.
• This system ensures freedom and security for the state forming his most lasting contribution.
• His work influenced the United States Constitution.

Voltaire

• François-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire, was a famous writer who criticized Christianity and advocated religious toleration.
• He championed deism, viewing God as a clockmaker who created the universe and allowed it to run by natural laws.

Diderot

• Denis Diderot created the Encyclopedia to "change the general way of thinking."
• The 28-volume collection attacked religious superstition, advocated religious toleration, and called for social, legal, and political reforms.
• The Encyclopedia spread Enlightenment ideas among doctors, clergymen, teachers, and lawyers.

New Social Sciences

• Philosophes aimed to discover natural laws underlying human life, leading to the development of social sciences like economics and political science.
• The Physiocrats and Adam Smith are considered founders of modern economics.
• The Physiocrats advocated laissez-faire, arguing the state should not regulate the economy.
• Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations (1776) supported a free enterprise system.
• Smith assigned government three roles: protecting society from invasion, defending citizens from injustice, and maintaining public works.

The Social Contract

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that government enslaved people and they needed to regain freedom.
• In The Social Contract (1762), Rousseau proposed that society agrees to be governed by its general will, which represents the community's best interests.
• Individuals must be forced to abide by the general will to achieve liberty.
• Rousseau valued emotions alongside reason.

Women's Rights

• Mary Wollstonecraft argued for equal rights in education, economics, and politics for women because they possess reason.
• She challenged the hypocrisy of advocating against arbitrary monarchical power while maintaining male dominance.

The Growth of Reading

• Enlightenment ideas spread through an increasingly literate society.
• Publishing expanded to reach the middle classes, including women and urban artisans.
• Novels with realistic social themes became popular.
• Magazines and newspapers emerged, providing information and fostering discussion in coffeehouses.
• Salons were gatherings in wealthy homes where Enlightenment ideas were discussed, and women played a key role in influencing opinion.

Religion in the Enlightenment

• Despite criticism from philosophes, Christianity remained prevalent.
• Methodism, founded by John Wesley, emphasized personal religious experience and good works.
• Methodists influenced reforms such as the abolition of the slave trade.

Architecture and Art

• European rulers emulated the Palace of Versailles, building grand residences.
• Balthasar Neumann blended secular and spiritual elements in his architecture.
• Rococo style emerged, emphasizing grace, charm, and pleasure-seeking.
• Antoine Watteau's paintings captured upper-class life with an underlying sense of sadness.

Music

• Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart transitioned from baroque to classical music.
• Haydn, influenced by public concerts in England, wrote The Creation and The Seasons.
• Mozart, a child prodigy, composed operas such as The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni.