The Enlightenment: Philosophy and Reason

• The Enlightenment was an 18th-century philosophical movement.
• Enlightenment thinkers were inspired by the Scientific Revolution.
• Enlightenment thinkers believed in reason, natural law, hope, and progress.
• The Enlightenment ideas became a force for reform.
• John Locke and Isaac Newton influenced the Enlightenment.
• Locke argued people are born with a blank mind that is shaped by experience.
• Newton viewed the world as a machine operating by natural laws.
• Enlightenment thinkers believed they could discover natural laws governing society.
• They thought that following these laws would lead to an ideal society.

The Role of Philosophy

• Philosophe means "philosopher" in French.
• Philosophes were writers, professors, journalists, economists, and social reformers.
• Most leaders of the Enlightenment were French.
• The role of philosophy was to change the world, applying reason and rational criticism to everything.
• Prominent figures in the first half of the 18th century included Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot.

Montesquieu

• Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu, studied governments in "The Spirit of the Laws".
• Montesquieu identified three branches of government which were executive, legislative, and judicial.
• He advocated for a separation of powers with checks and balances.
• Checks and balances prevent any one group from gaining too much power.
• This promotes freedom and security for the state.
• American philosophes incorporated these ideas into the U.S. Constitution.

Voltaire

• François-Marie Arouet, known as Voltaire, was a famous writer.
• Voltaire critiqued Christianity and advocated for religious toleration.
• Voltaire supported deism.
• Deism is the belief that God created the universe.
• God set it in motion, and allows it to run according to natural laws, without interference.

Diderot

• Denis Diderot edited the Encyclopedia.
• The Encyclopedia was a 28-volume collection that aimed to "change the general way of thinking."
• The Encyclopedia attacked religious superstition.
• The Encyclopedia supported religious toleration.
• The Encyclopedia called for social, legal, and political reforms.
• The Encyclopedia spread Enlightenment ideas.

New Social Sciences

• Philosophes believed Newton's methods could reveal natural laws in human life.
• This led to the development of social sciences like economics and political science.
• The Physiocrats and Adam Smith founded modern economics.
• The Physiocrats believed in natural economic laws.
• The Physiocrats thought that individual self-interest would benefit society.
• The state should not regulate the economy.
• This is known as laissez-faire
• laissez-faire means "to let (people) do (what they want)."
• Adam Smith advocated for a free enterprise system in "The Wealth of Nations" (1776).
• Smith believed government should protect from invasion, defend from injustice, and maintain public works like roads and canals.

The Social Contract

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that people had become enslaved by government to protect their property.
• In "The Social Contract", Rousseau presented the concept of the social contract.
• Government should be governed by the general will.
• Individuals must be forced to abide by the general will.
• Liberty is achieved by following what is best for the community.
• Rousseau believed that emotions were as important as reason.
• He sought a balance between heart and mind.

Women's Rights

• Male intellectuals believed that women are inferior to men.
• By the 18th century, female thinkers began advocating for women's rights.
• Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women's rights.
• Wollstonecraft is seen as the founder of the modern European and American women's rights movements.
• In "A Vindication of the Rights of Women", Wollstonecraft criticized the inconsistency of those who supported monarchy but not male domination.
• Wollstonecraft argued that women have reason.
• Wollstonecraft stated that therefore, women are entitled to the same rights as men.
• Wollstonecraft believed that women should have equal rights in education, economics, and politics.

The Growth of Reading

• Enlightenment ideas spread to the literate elite through increased publishing and reading.
• Books targeted the middle classes, including women and urban artisans.
• Novelists used realistic social themes.
• Henry Fielding wrote novels about immoral characters who survive by their wits, such as "The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling".
• Magazines and newspapers grew in popularity.
• The first daily newspaper was printed in London in 1702.
• Coffeehouses and salons served as gathering places for idea exchange.
• Salons were hosted by women.
• Salons brought writers, artists, aristocrats, officials, and middle-class people together.
• Salon hosts influenced political opinion.
• Salon hosts helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment.

Religion in the Enlightenment

• Most Europeans remained Christian.
• People sought deeper personal devotion.
• John Wesley founded Methodism in England.
• Wesley's mystical experience led him to preach and convert people.
• Converts joined Methodist societies and did good works.
• Methodists influenced the abolition of the slave trade.

Architecture and Art

• Versailles influenced European rulers to build grand residences.
• Balthasar Neumann was a great architect.
• Neumann designed the Church of the Fourteen Saints and the Residence in Würzburg.
• The baroque and neoclassical styles lasted into the 18th century.
• Rococo emerged emphasizing grace, charm, and gentle action.
• Rococo used delicate designs, gold colors, and graceful curves and was secular.
• Rococo reflected pleasure, happiness, and love.
• Antoine Watteau's rococo paintings, such as "Embarkation for Cythera", showed upper-class life but also sadness.

Music

• The 18th century had enduring music.
• Franz Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote classical instead of baroque music.
• Haydn wrote for public concerts in England.
• Haydn wrote "The Creation" and "The Seasons".
• Mozart was a child prodigy and wrote operas.
• Mozart wrote "The Marriage of Figaro", "The Magic Flute", and "Don Giovanni".