The Enlightenment and Its Ideas
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Questions and Answers

What primary shift characterized the Enlightenment period?

  • Emphasis on tradition over reason
  • Celebration of religious dogma
  • Focus on reason over tradition (correct)
  • Preference for community values over individualism

    • What resulted from the clash between new Enlightenment ideas and traditional political structures?

  • Rise of constitutional monarchies across Europe
  • Increased loyalty to colonial powers
  • Stability and unification of empires
  • Revolutions aiming for independence and representation (correct)

    • Which philosophical concept did Francis Bacon emphasize in the 17th century?

  • Existentialism
  • Rationalism
  • Idealism
  • Empiricism (correct)

    • How did Enlightenment thinkers view the role of religion in society?

    <p>They thought traditional religion became less pervasive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two movements emerged during the Enlightenment as opposing forces to conservatism?

    <p>Socialism and liberalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept is described as a strong loyalty to one's language and culture during the Enlightenment?

    <p>Nationalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the primary aims of revolutions inspired by Enlightenment ideas?

    <p>Independence from imperial control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterized the 'Age of Isms' during the Enlightenment?

    <p>The rise of diverse new political and social movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary reason for the failure of Empress Cixi to manage modernization in China?

    <p>Her conservative approach towards reforms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the response of the Chinese government to the demands for modernization despite the conservative stance of Empress Cixi?

    <p>Continued modernization efforts with foreign assistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event significantly marked the tensions between China and foreign powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

    <p>The Boxer Rebellion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one consequence of China's internal turmoil and the fear of Japan's encroachment?

    <p>Acceptance of territorial protection from Western powers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the attitudes of Europeans towards reforms differ between China and Turkey?

    <p>Europeans encouraged change in China but not in Turkey</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one significant outcome of Muhammad Ali's reforms in Egypt?

    <p>State control over cotton production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a primary goal of Japan's Meiji Restoration?

    <p>To modernize and protect traditional culture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which external factor triggered Japan to open its ports to international trade?

    <p>The arrival of naval power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one reform implemented by the Meiji government in Japan?

    <p>Creation of a new military based on the Prussian model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following industries did the Japanese government finance during industrialization?

    <p>Textile production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery?

    <p>Brazil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event had a significant impact on the rise of Zionism in the late 19th century?

    <p>Dreyfus Affair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Muhammad Ali's policies affect the agricultural landscape of Egypt?

    <p>Government acquisition of peasant lands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant change occurred in Japan's government structure during the Meiji Restoration?

    <p>Establishment of a constitutional monarchy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the leader of the Zionist movement?

    <p>Theodor Herzl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the consequences of the high agricultural tax imposed by the Japanese government during its modernization?

    <p>Stimulation of economic growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Thomas Jefferson incorporate into the Declaration of Independence?

    <p>Unalienable Rights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main economic influences on the American Revolution?

    <p>Mercantilism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the state of Japan from 1600 to 1854?

    <p>Isolated with minimal foreign contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event marked the beginning of the end for serfdom in Europe?

    <p>Abolition of Feudal Rights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did zaibatsu play in Japan's industrial growth?

    <p>They facilitated private investments in industries.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phrase was popularized during the French Revolution?

    <p>Liberty, Equality, Fraternity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of industrial development did Muhammad Ali pursue in Egypt?

    <p>Government-sponsored industrialization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant factor in the New Zealand Wars?

    <p>Maori national identity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What marked the beginning of Japan's rapid modernization?

    <p>The end of isolationist policies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monarch abolished serfdom in England?

    <p>Queen Elizabeth I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which was a significant challenge faced by Japan during its modernization efforts?

    <p>Exploitation of female workers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of Japan's decision to embrace Western technology?

    <p>Emergence of new industries and problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one effect of Enlightenment ideas on revolutions from 1750 to 1900?

    <p>Growth of constitutional governments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the outcome of the American Revolution in 1783?

    <p>Independence from Britain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which major reform did Alexander II of Russia implement in 1861?

    <p>Abolition of serfdom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of the British annexation of New Zealand in 1840?

    <p>Pressure for Maori land</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the ideas of Enlightenment philosophers differ from conservative thinkers of the time?

    <p>Encouraged revolutionary ideas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant outcome of the Estates-General meeting in France in spring 1789?

    <p>The formation of the National Assembly by the commoners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event on July 14, 1789, marked a turning point in the French Revolution?

    <p>The storming of the Bastille</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the leader of the Haitian Revolution that sought to abolish slavery?

    <p>Toussaint L'Ouverture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the Haitian Revolution is true?

    <p>It was the first successful slave revolt in history.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major reform did Toussaint L'Ouverture implement after gaining control of Haiti?

    <p>Implementation of land reforms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What sparked the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution?

    <p>The refusal of Louis XVI to accept the monarchy's limits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Simón Bolívar hope to achieve with the establishment of Gran Colombia?

    <p>A federation based on Enlightenment ideals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group in Latin America was primarily composed of people of European ancestry born in the Americas?

    <p>Creoles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one major challenge faced by newly independent nations in Latin America after the revolutions?

    <p>Internal strife caused by caudillos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant ideological principle did both the Haitian and French Revolutions share?

    <p>Natural rights of citizens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What legal change did the first constitution of Peru enforce regarding voting rights?

    <p>Those unable to read or write in Spanish could not vote</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did women generally fare in the aftermath of the revolutions in Latin America?

    <p>They maintained traditional roles with little change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the common discontent among creoles in Latin America primarily stem from?

    <p>Limited political power and mercantilism by Spain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did Lola Rodríguez de Tió play in the Puerto Rican struggle for independence?

    <p>She was a celebrated poet and revolutionary figure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was known for leading a series of revolutionary efforts in South America against Spanish rule?

    <p>Simón Bolívar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a unique aspect of Haiti's path to independence compared to other Latin American countries?

    <p>Haiti was the first country to achieve independence through a slave uprising.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one effect of the Propaganda Movement in the Philippines?

    <p>It fostered nationalism among Filipinos</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key characteristic of the caudillos who rose after the independence wars?

    <p>They often pursued personal power and interests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What position did Toussaint L'Ouverture assume after creating a government in Haiti?

    <p>Governor for life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of Bolívar's beliefs is reflected in his description of himself?

    <p>His advocacy for a free market and abolition of slavery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the creoles' fear of the masses influence their revolutionary actions?

    <p>They refused to support uprisings of lower social classes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happened to José Rizal as a result of his activism?

    <p>He was exiled due to his revolutionary writings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was NOT a cause of discontent among creoles in Latin America?

    <p>Desire for land reform</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main response of King Louis XVI to the formation of the National Assembly?

    <p>He threatened to arrest its leaders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is false regarding the impact of the Latin American revolutions?

    <p>Women experienced significant rights advancements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was significant about Manuela Sáenz in the context of the Latin American revolutions?

    <p>She directly supported Simón Bolívar and was a significant figure in battles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a common outcome of the Creole Revolutions in Latin America?

    <p>Continued power of the Creole elite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way did the revolutions in the Americas influence nationalism in Europe?

    <p>They inspired nationalist movements to unify culturally similar groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the significance of Bolívar's 'Jamaica Letter'?

    <p>It expressed the aspirations for independence and rights of people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did corporations influence job creation in communities during the industrial era?

    <p>By deciding on locations for new factories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did Lloyd's of London play in the development of the insurance industry?

    <p>It began as a coffee house for merchants and sailors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the culture of consumerism during the industrial revolution?

    <p>It drove producers to heavily advertise their products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key factor in the popularity of leisure activities in Great Britain in the 19th century?

    <p>Increased disposable income among workers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of sports were typically associated with England's upper classes?

    <p>Tennis and golf</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What motivated workers to form labor unions in the 19th century?

    <p>The need for collective bargaining power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did the Sadler Report have on labor conditions in Britain?

    <p>It raised awareness of factory conditions among the public and lawmakers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ideology sought to drastically change the flawed industrial system?

    <p>Utopian socialism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the government typically respond to labor unions during most of the 19th century?

    <p>It viewed them as threats and enemies of trade</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable accomplishment of labor unions in the 20th century?

    <p>Winning rights for minimum wage and overtime pay</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributed to the establishment of music halls and public parks?

    <p>To encourage mingling among various social classes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bicycle received popularity in the late 1800s due to its safety features?

    <p>Safety bicycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did industrialization affect the social structures in societies?

    <p>It increased tension between social classes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the industrial era, what did men like Mary Harris 'Mother' Jones comment on?

    <p>The struggles of coal miners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Enlightenment thinkers primarily focus on in response to social issues caused by urbanization?

    <p>Advocating for more government regulations and social programs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics did French philosophes emphasize in their work?

    <p>Reliance on empirical data and reason</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is associated with the idea of utopian socialism and advocated for public works to provide employment?

    <p>Henri de Saint-Simon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Mary Wollstonecraft's perspective on education for women?

    <p>Women should receive the same education as men</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant progression did feminists seek during the Enlightenment?

    <p>Women's rights to vote and hold office</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which political theory emphasizes public ownership of production means?

    <p>Utopian socialism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Seneca Falls Convention is historically significant for promoting what?

    <p>Women's suffrage and rights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which branch of socialism favored reform through parliamentary means?

    <p>Fabian socialism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Enlightenment thinker wrote 'A Vindication of the Rights of Women'?

    <p>Mary Wollstonecraft</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes classical liberalism?

    <p>Support for natural rights and constitutional government</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Charles Fourier advocate for in his vision of utopian socialism?

    <p>Encouragement of passions to enhance work enjoyment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did conservatives typically attribute the plight of the poor to during the Enlightenment era?

    <p>The character and actions of the poor themselves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When did women's rights advocates gain the full right to vote in the United Kingdom?

    <p>1928</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the philosophy of John Locke?

    <p>Advocacy for the social contract and individual rights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Thomas Hobbes' view on the natural state of humanity?

    <p>Life was 'nasty, brutish, and short.'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which philosopher is known for the idea that citizens have the responsibility to revolt against unjust government?

    <p>John Locke</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Locke propose regarding a child's mind at birth?

    <p>It is a 'blank slate' waiting to be filled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Baron Montesquieu's contribution to political theory?

    <p>He promoted the separation of powers within government.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Adam Smith's economic philosophy?

    <p>Laissez-faire promotes economic freedom with minimal government intervention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Deism as proposed during the Enlightenment?

    <p>The belief that a divinity created the universe but does not interfere in its workings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a major influence of Voltaire's writings?

    <p>Advocacy for civil liberties and religious tolerance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Rousseau introduce in his work 'The Social Contract'?

    <p>The General Will of the populace and obligation of the sovereign.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly represents Adam Smith's critique of mercantilism?

    <p>It restricts consumer choices to promote national interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which thinker believed in the reformation of society to improve human conditions?

    <p>Jean-Jacques Rousseau</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known for coining the term 'invisible hand' in economic discussions?

    <p>Adam Smith</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following works is associated with Locke's ideas on government?

    <p>Two Treatises of Government</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the Enlightenment's key contributions to society?

    <p>Promotion of reason and individual rights.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which philosopher argued for the existence of natural rights including life, liberty, and property?

    <p>John Locke</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Count di Cavour's primary goal during the Italian unification?

    <p>To unite the Italian Peninsula under the House of Savoy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept did Cavour embrace that emphasizes practical politics?

    <p>Realpolitik</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Cavour initially attempt to weaken Austrian influence in Italy?

    <p>By manipulating Napoleon III into a war with Austria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which military leader did Cavour ally with during the Italian unification?

    <p>Giuseppe Garibaldi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary goal of the Ottomanism movement in the 1870s and 1880s?

    <p>To create a modern and unified state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of political philosophy did Giuseppe Mazzini advocate?

    <p>Romantic nationalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which war was pivotal in the process of German unification under Otto von Bismarck?

    <p>Seven Weeks' War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes the reaction of ethnic groups within the Ottoman Empire towards Ottomanism?

    <p>They viewed Ottomanism with suspicion and sought their own independence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been observed as a potential trend in nationalism within Europe?

    <p>A decline in nationalism in favor of larger political groupings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant result of the Franco-Prussian War?

    <p>The creation of the German Empire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event contributed to the rise of Balkan nationalism?

    <p>The intervention of Russia, Austria, and Western powers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Egypt respond to Western technological innovations during industrialization?

    <p>Egypt adopted industrial techniques such as the steam engine to boost textile productivity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What nickname was given to the Ottoman Empire due to its decline?

    <p>The Sick Man of Europe.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region was the first to achieve independence from Ottoman control?

    <p>Greece</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a direct consequence of the unification movements in Italy and Germany?

    <p>The emergence of two new European powers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant change happened to the Ottoman Empire after World War I?

    <p>It fragmented into independent nations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary reason for mass emigration from Italy in the late nineteenth century?

    <p>Economic hardship, particularly in the south</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the key problems faced by the Ottoman Empire during the 1800s?

    <p>Rampant corruption leading to rapid decline.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure rose to prominence in Egypt and began significant reforms during the early 19th century?

    <p>Muhammad Ali.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What ideology encourages the unification of people based on shared culture, language, and history?

    <p>Nationalism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who led the Red Shirts, a crucial military force in the Italian unification?

    <p>Giuseppe Garibaldi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Japan respond to Western challenges during the Meiji era?

    <p>By actively seeking Western innovations to equalize itself with Western nations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a major factor leading to the rise of nationalism in the Balkans during the 17th century?

    <p>Decline of Ottoman power and influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the main reasons China struggled to industrialize in the 19th century?

    <p>An inability to promote industrialization due to weakened government.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What military reform did Muhammad Ali implement in Egypt?

    <p>He modernized the army on a European model.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Hatt-i Humayun edict declare regarding education, government appointments, and justice?

    <p>It established equality for all men regardless of religion or ethnicity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Emperor Meiji express in his letter to President Ulysses Grant regarding Japan's goals?

    <p>Japan sought to adopt suitable institutions and reforms to match enlightened nations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was NOT one of the outcomes of Ottoman attempts at modernization?

    <p>Strengthened leadership and stability.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group protested the new regulations established by the Hatt-i Humayun edict?

    <p>Only the Christians in the Balkans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the Tanzimat reforms affect women in the Ottoman Empire?

    <p>They left women's rights largely unchanged.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary focus of the Self-Strengthening Movement in China?

    <p>Graft modern ideas onto traditional systems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why did Empress Dowager Cixi initially oppose the Hundred Days of Reform?

    <p>She feared foreign influence and loss of tradition.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major event increased the demand for reform in China during the late 19th century?

    <p>China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a consequence of the economic changes in the Ottoman Empire during the Tanzimat period?

    <p>Increase in cash payments to workers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group was primarily targeted by Sultan Abdulhamid's government to muster support?

    <p>Christian minorities, particularly Armenians.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Tanzimat reforms not directly address?

    <p>Legal equality for men and women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reform did Kang Youwei advocate for in his meeting with Emperor Guangxu?

    <p>Elimination of corruption in governance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What nickname did Sultan Abdulhamid acquire due to his oppressive rule?

    <p>The Red Sultan.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the civil service system contribute to government issues in late 19th century China?

    <p>It perpetuated corruption and reduced government revenue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What economic system replaced mercantilism during the period of economic transformation in Japan?

    <p>Laissez-faire</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following companies is noted for having created a monopoly in the oil industry in the United States?

    <p>Standard Oil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the aim of the Tanzimat reforms in the context of the Ottoman Empire?

    <p>To modernize administration and promote equality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did the incorporation of foreign advisors have on China's reform movements?

    <p>It enhanced military readiness and economic management.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one characteristic that distinguishes a corporation from a sole proprietorship?

    <p>A corporation has indefinite duration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following contributed to Japan's industrial growth between 1872 and 1914?

    <p>Increased coal production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key outcome of the Tanzimat reforms that persisted even under resistance?

    <p>Modernization of the military and education.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a major benefit of the corporate structure during industrialization?

    <p>Ease of transferring ownership</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which individual is associated with the development of a monopoly in the German steel industry?

    <p>Alfred Krupp</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did transnational companies play in the economic system of the 19th century?

    <p>Enhanced global trade and resource extraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was an essential feature of corporations that allows stockholders to limit their financial losses?

    <p>Limited liability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which year saw the highest coal production in Japan according to the data presented?

    <p>1913</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the corporate structure benefit large-scale economic activities compared to sole proprietorships?

    <p>By minimizing risk through shared investment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following technological advancements is specifically mentioned as part of Japan's economic transformation?

    <p>Automatic loom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a sole proprietorship that distinguishes it from a corporation?

    <p>Single ownership and decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best reflects the philosophy underpinning capitalism as mentioned in the resources?

    <p>Humans are naturally transactional beings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which banking institution emerged as a key player during the rise of transnational banking in the 19th century?

    <p>Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant outcome of the reform bills passed by the British parliament in the 19th century?

    <p>Voting rights were extended to all men in 1918.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reform specifically aimed to improve children's working conditions in Britain?

    <p>The establishment of mandatory education for children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did John Stuart Mill’s philosophy diverge from that of utopian socialists?

    <p>He aimed for gradual reform within the capitalist system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept did Karl Marx associate with the division of society into two main classes?

    <p>Bourgeoisie and proletariat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Karl Marx propose as the final stage following socialism?

    <p>Communism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key change did Sultan Mahmud II enforce in the Ottoman Empire?

    <p>Creation of a centralized tax collection system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reorganization reforms termed Tanzimat aimed primarily to:

    <p>Modernize the Ottoman state and root out corruption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which philosophy criticizes laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers?

    <p>Utilitarianism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main argument presented by Marx in the Communist Manifesto?

    <p>Capitalism inherently creates class conflict and exploitation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which reform in 1843 significantly changed child labor practices in Britain?

    <p>Prohibition of children under 10 in coal mines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main goal of creating legal frameworks such as the commercial and penal codes during the Tanzimat reforms?

    <p>To encourage foreign investment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable aspect of the changes in child labor laws in Britain during the 19th century?

    <p>Introduction of child labor regulations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Karl Marx’s approach to economics is referred to as what?

    <p>Scientific socialism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reforms during Mahmud II’s reign included establishing a secular education system that aimed to:

    <p>Provide education free from religious control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    The Enlightenment

    • Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason over tradition and individualism over community values, challenging the roles of monarchs and church leaders.
    • This movement originated from the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance humanism, fostering optimism about progress through applying reason to natural laws.
    • Enlightenment thinkers often viewed human accomplishments as central to understanding the natural world, extending this concept to social and political spheres.
    • Traditional religious beliefs lessened in influence, while new schools of thought, including socialism and liberalism, emerged, leading to the "Age of Isms."
    • These ideals fueled revolutions seeking independence and constitutional representation, leading to the breakup of empires and new forms of government based on nationalism.

    New Ideas and Their Roots

    • Francis Bacon stressed empirical methods in scientific inquiry (empiricism).
    • Thomas Hobbes and John Locke theorized political life as a social contract.
    • Hobbes believed humans are inherently driven to a bleak existence (nasty, brutish, and short), needing a strong central authority.
    • Locke argued citizens have the right to rebel against unjust governments and natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of property.
    • Locke's concept of the tabula rasa (blank slate) emphasized environmental and educational influences on individual development.

    The Philosophes

    • 18th-century thinkers (philosophes) explored social, political, and economic theories, building upon 17th-century scientific thinkers.
    • Prominent philosophes included Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, Adam Smith, and many French thinkers.
    • Baron Montesquieu's The Spirit of Laws influenced the separation of powers in the American system of government.
    • Voltaire, known for social satire like Candide, advocated for civil liberties and religious freedom, influencing the U.S. Constitution.
    • Jean-Jacques Rousseau expanded on the social contract, focusing on the General Will and the sovereign's obligation to uphold it.

    Deism

    • Deism emerged from Enlightenment emphasis on reason, focusing on a divine force establishing natural laws.
    • Deists saw divinity as a watchmaker, creating laws but not intervening in daily events.
    • Deists favored scientific inquiry over religious texts for understanding these laws.

    The Age of New Ideas Continues

    • Enlightenment thinkers responded to societal ills like poverty and lack of representation.
    • Various responses were proposed, including greater government regulation and programs, increased private charity, or blame placed on the poor themselves for failing to change.

    Utopian Socialism

    • Utopian socialism envisioned ideal communities managed by principles of public ownership, focusing on harmonious living rather than class struggle.
    • Henri de Saint-Simon advocated for collaboration among scientists, engineers, and businesses to create efficient work environments, and public works projects.
    • Charles Fourier identified 810 passions to improve work conditions, promoting harmonious communities.
    • Robert Owen established intentional communities based on his principles of utopian socialism in Scotland and Indiana.

    Classical Liberalism

    • Classical liberals believed in natural rights, constitutional government, laissez-faire economics, and reduction in spending on armies and established churches.
    • They focused on reforms in Parliament to reflect industrial city populations.
    • Support for greater male suffrage in British Parliament.

    Feminism

    • Enlightenment ideals spurred the women's rights movement.
    • Olympe de Gouges championed women's rights during the French Revolution.
    • Mary Wollstonecraft argued for equal education for women to empower them in political and professional spheres.
    • The Seneca Falls Convention advocated for women's suffrage.

    Abolitionism

    • Abolitionism aimed at ending slavery and the Atlantic slave trade.
    • Abolition of slave trading predated abolition of slavery.
    • End of slavery occurred within 30 years after the end of the slave trade in most parts of the Americas.
    • Serfdom declined in Europe due to economic shifts and peasant revolts, reaching a significant abolishment in Russia (largest singular emancipation).

    Zionism

    • Zionism sought to reestablish an independent Jewish homeland in the Middle East.
    • Theodor Herzl led the Zionist movement.
    • The Dreyfus Affair (1894) highlighted widespread anti-Semitism.
    • Israel was founded in 1948, facing challenges from Palestinian Arabs.

    Nationalism and Revolutions

    • The American Revolution was inspired by Enlightenment values and physiocratic economic ideas opposing English mercantilism.
    • The Declaration of Independence articulated principles of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, based on Locke's ideas.
    • The American colonists sought political and economic independence.

    The French Revolution

    • The French Revolution embraced liberté, égalité, et fraternité (liberty, equality, and fraternity).
    • Economic difficulties (increased spending and debts) further exacerbated existing social inequalities.
    • The Estates-General, representing the clergy, nobility, and commoners, convened but led to the forming of the National Assembly by commoners.
    • The storming of the Bastille marked the beginning of the revolution, leading to the abolition of feudalism and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man.
    • The revolution saw differing ideologies (Jacobins), leading to turmoil and the Reign of Terror.
    • Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power as emperor.

    The Haitian Revolution

    • A slave uprising in Haiti (part of St. Domingue) resulted in independence.
    • Toussaint L'Ouverture led the rebellion and created a constitution promoting equality.
    • L'Ouverture's death did not halt Haitian independence, with Jean-Jacques Dessalines orchestrating a declaration of independence, making Haiti the first independent state in Latin America and a black-led country.

    Creole Revolutions in Latin America

    • Creole elites in Latin America, aware of Enlightenment ideas, sought independence from Spain.

    • Discontent stemmed from mercantilist policies, desire for political power, and resentment of peninsulares holding government positions.

    • Mestizos also desired political power.

    • Simón Bolívar led revolutions in numerous areas, aiming for a federation similar to the United States.

    • The Creole revolutions resulted in the establishment of several independent countries, often with conservative governments.

    Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism

    • Puerto Rico and Cuba saw uprisings against Spain, with Lola Rodríguez de Tió playing a crucial role in the Puerto Rican independence movement through poetry and activism.
    • Philippines experienced the Propaganda Movement, followed by the Philippine Revolution and gaining independence.

    Nationalism in Europe

    • Nationalism led to unification efforts in Italy and Germany, resulting in new nation-states.
    • The Congress of Vienna (1815) followed the Napoleonic Wars, leading to further revolutions.
    • Otto von Bismarck's realpolitik strategies unified Germany through war.

    Balkan Nationalism

    • Balkan nationalism emerged from the decline of the Ottoman Empire and increased contact with European ideas.
    • Greek independence was achieved with European intervention.
    • Nationalism led to the formation of new nations in the Balkans.

    Ottoman Nationalism

    • The Ottoman Empire attempted to create a more unified state (Ottomanism), but it backfired, intensifying ethnic and religious nationalism.

    Industrialization: Government's Role

    • Japan actively sought Western innovations to modernize and maintain independence.
    • The Meiji Restoration in 1868 restored imperial power to the emperor.
    • Reforms included abolishing feudalism, establishing a constitutional monarchy, reorganizing the military, expanding education, building infrastructure, and subsidizing key industries.
    • Muhammad Ali in Egypt modernized the military and economy through state-sponsored industrialization and reforms.

    Economic Developments and Innovations

    • Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations supported capitalism and laissez-faire policies.
    • Transnational institutions like HSBC and Unilever emerged.
    • Corporations rose, minimizing risk through limited liability, facilitating the transferability of shares, establishment of juridical entities, and indefinite durations.
    • Monopolies rose as manufacturers, like Alfred Krupp in Germany.

    Reactions to the Industrial Economy

    • Harsh industrial conditions led to resistance and calls for reforms.
    • Labor unions emerged to advocate for workers' rights, including minimum wage, reduced hours, and overtime pay.
    • Philosophers like John Stuart Mill championed reforms in worker protections, arguing for utilitarianism (greatest good for greatest number).
    • Karl Marx argued for socialism as an alternative to capitalism.
    • Ottoman Empire reforms (Tanzimat) aimed to modernize and address internal problems but created tensions.
    • China's Self-Strengthening Movement and Hundred Days of Reform represented attempts to modernize, differing from Japan in approach.

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    Explore the transformative period of the Enlightenment, where reason challenged traditional values and sparked new political ideologies. This quiz delves into key thinkers like Bacon, Hobbes, and Locke, examining how their ideas shaped the modern world. Discover how the Enlightenment laid the groundwork for contemporary social and political theories.

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