The Enlightenment and Its Ideas

A philosophical movement emphasizing reason, individualism, and human progress, challenging traditional authority and shaping revolutions.

The belief that knowledge comes from sensory experiences and observations, often involving experiments.

The belief that natural laws govern both the physical and social world, leading to the idea of progress through reason.

A period of intellectual and social change marked by new ideologies like socialism, liberalism, and conservatism, leading to the emergence of the term 'the Age of Isms'.

A feeling of intense loyalty and identification with a shared language and culture, often leading to the desire for national independence.

The process of gaining independence from imperial powers and establishing representative governments, often driven by Enlightenment ideals.

A new political ideology that favored limited government and individual rights, often emphasizing free markets and constitutionalism.

A new political ideology that emphasizes social equality and economic justice, promoting collective ownership and government intervention.

The belief in traditional institutions and practices, favoring experience over abstract theories and emphasizing stability over rapid change.

Advocating for perfect societies built on principles of harmony and cooperation, often through intentional communities.

Believed that scientists and engineers working with industry could create efficient and beautiful workplaces for the benefit of society.

Proposed that encouraging diverse human passions would make work more enjoyable and less tiring, leading to a harmonious society.

Established intentional communities based on utopian socialist principles, focusing on education, communal ownership, and social harmony.

A belief in natural rights, limited government, free markets, and reduced spending on military and religion.

Fought for women's rights and equality during the French Revolution, calling for a 'Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the (Female) Citizen'.

Pioneering feminist writer who argued for women's equal education and independence from reliance on men through reason.

A landmark event in the women's rights movement that advocated for women's suffrage, property rights, and equal guardianship of children.

The movement to abolish slavery and the Atlantic slave trade, gaining momentum in the 18th century.

The belief that governments are formed through the consent of the governed, where individuals agree to certain rules for the common good.

The belief that natural laws govern both the physical and social world, leading to the idea of progress through reason.

A series of wars in New Zealand between British colonists and the Maori people, driven by land disputes and growing English control.

The end of serfdom in Russia, where millions of serfs were freed from their obligations to landowners.

The desire of Jews to reestablish an independent homeland in the Middle East, where their ancestors had lived.

Hostility and prejudice towards Jews, often leading to violence and discrimination.

A scandal in France involving a Jewish military officer falsely accused of treason, highlighting the prevalence of anti-Semitism.

A French political thinker who opposed the Enlightenment and advocated for traditional institutions and stability.

The American Revolution, which resulted in the establishment of the United States as an independent nation.

A document that declared the independence of the American colonies from British rule, outlining the principles of individual rights and self-governance.

A political movement advocating for the rights and equality of women, challenging traditional social and legal inequalities.

A philosophy that emphasizes reason, observation, and logic to understand the world, challenging traditional authorities and leading to advancements in science, politics, and society.

Philosopher who argued that people are born with natural rights to life, liberty, and property. He also believed that a child's mind is a blank slate (tabula rasa) shaped by experiences.

English philosopher who believed that people's natural state is chaotic without a strong government to maintain order. He argued for a social contract where people give up some freedoms for security.

A French philosopher who advocated for the separation of powers in government, with checks and balances to prevent tyranny. His ideas influenced the American Constitution.

A French writer and philosopher who championed freedom of speech and religious tolerance, known for his witty and satirical works, including 'Candide'.

The idea that a strong central government should actively control the economy and economic activities, with a focus on accumulating gold and promoting exports.

A belief that God created the universe but does not intervene in its affairs, like a watchmaker who creates a watch but does not interfere in its functions.

A radical concept for his era, Locke believed that a child's mind is born as a 'blank slate' (tabula rasa), and the environment and education shape them.

An economic philosophy where the government takes a hands-off approach to the economy, allowing free markets to regulate themselves.

An economic system where the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit, driven by competition and self-interest.

A theory developed by Rousseau, where the collective will of the people governs the community.

A French philosopher who championed social justice and political equality. He emphasized the importance of the 'general will' for a well-functioning society.

A powerful local leader with a strong regional base able to influence national politics.

A large area that Simón Bolívar hoped to unite into a federation based on Enlightenment ideals.

A letter written by Simon Bolívar in 1815 outlining his goals and concerns for Latin America.

Simón Bolívar's belief in a free market economy and the abolition of slavery.

A new nation in Latin America, facing challenges after its independence, including power struggles and a lack of stable governance.

A group of wealthy creoles who continued to hold power and influence even after independence.

The process of gaining independence from colonial powers, often motivated by Enlightenment ideals and the desire for self-governance.

A movement in the Philippines during the 19th century advocating for greater autonomy from Spain.

The process of uniting people who share a common culture and language into a single political state.

The spread of nationalism beyond Europe, influencing revolutions and movements for independence.

A poet and revolutionary who played a key role in the Puerto Rican struggle against Spanish rule.

A revolutionary song by Lola Rodríguez de Tió that inspired Puerto Ricans to fight for independence.

The French government's assembly of representatives from different social groups, consisting of the clergy, nobility, and commoners, in 1789.

The group of commoners who broke away from the Estates-General in 1789, demanding greater representation and equality in French society.

The storming of the Bastille, a former prison in Paris, on July 14, 1789, marking the beginning of the French Revolution and symbolizing the overthrow of royal authority.

The permanent abolishment of feudalism in France, eliminating the traditional system of social hierarchy and obligations between lords and peasants.

A document declaring basic human rights, adopted by the National Assembly in 1789, emphasizing liberty, equality, and fraternity.

A period of intense political turmoil in France between 1793 and 1794, where the government executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, including the king and queen.

A former slave who led the Haitian Revolution, fighting against slavery and French colonial rule, achieving independence for Haiti.

The rebellion of slaves against their French masters in Haiti, ignited by the principles of the American and French revolutions.

The first successful slave rebellion in history, leading to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation in 1804.

People of European descent born in the Americas, who played a key role in the Latin American revolutions, seeking independence from Spain.

The desire for political control and economic benefits within the colonies, motivating creoles to seek independence from Spain.

A Venezuelan revolutionary leader who spearheaded the independence movements across South America, promoting Enlightenment ideals in the region.

The fear of social upheaval and unrest, particularly from the lower classes, influencing the actions of creoles during the revolutions.

A movement in the Ottoman Empire aiming to create a unified modern state by minimizing ethnic, linguistic, and religious differences.

A term used to describe the Ottoman Empire's decline and instability in the 19th century due to internal problems and external pressures.

A period in Chinese history marked by humiliation due to the Opium Wars and the division of China into spheres of influence by European powers.

A policy adopted by Japan in the 19th century to modernize and strengthen the nation by adopting Western technology and ideas.

The Albanian Ottoman officer who rose to prominence in Egypt, eventually becoming the governor and implementing reforms to modernize the country.

The process of a country transitioning from an agrarian economy to one based on industries and technological advancements.

A policy pursued by some states in the 19th century to encourage industrial development through government support and investment.

The Ottoman Empire's decline in the 19th century due to overexpansion, corruption, and failure to modernize, leading to internal unrest and external threats.

The Ottoman Empire's former territory in Egypt, where Muhammad Ali rose to power and implemented reforms independent of the sultan.

The impact of Western technology and ideas on different countries, leading to varying degrees of response and adaptation.

The competing pressures faced by different nations during the 19th century between preserving traditional values and embracing modernization.

The process of replacing traditional methods and practices with new technologies and industrial processes.

The ability of a government to effectively implement policies and promote national development, which can be affected by factors like internal stability and external pressures.

A term used to describe the weakening of central governments in some countries due to internal conflicts and external pressures.

The use of military force by European powers to expand their empires and influence, often at the expense of other countries.

A political strategy that focuses on practical interests and national power rather than idealistic principles or moral concerns.

A movement that aimed to unite all Italian-speaking people under a single, independent state. It was a significant factor in the unification of Italy during the 19th century.

The Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia who played a key role in uniting Italy. He employed realpolitik strategies and alliances to achieve his goals.

The influential leader of the Red Shirts, a military force that fought for Italian unification. He played a critical role in the liberation of southern Italy.

The process of unifying different German states into a single, powerful empire under Prussian leadership. It was a major geopolitical event in the 19th century.

The Prussian statesman who masterminded German unification through strategic alliances and wars. He was a master of realpolitik, manipulating events to his advantage.

A region on the border between France and Germany. Its annexation by Prussia after the Franco-Prussian War was a major source of resentment and conflict between France and Germany.

The weakening of the Ottoman Empire's influence in southeastern Europe, culminating in the independence of various Balkan nations. This process was driven by nationalism and external powers' involvement.

Increasing contact with Western European ideas, especially the ideals of the Enlightenment, played a significant role in sparking nationalist movements in the Balkans.

The process of achieving independence from the Ottoman Empire, marked by prolonged conflict and the intervention of European powers.

Significant cultural markers, such as shared language, traditions, history, and religion, became rallying points for people seeking independence and self-determination in the Balkans.

External powers, like Russia and Austria, often played a role in assisting Balkan states in their struggle for independence from the waning Ottoman Empire.

The Ottoman Empire's dominance in southeastern Europe gradually declined over several centuries, leading to a rise in nationalist movements and independence for various Balkan states.

A major event that signified the beginning of the Ottoman Empire's decline, illustrating the growing strength of European powers in the region.

Empress Cixi, despite adopting some reforms, remained a staunch traditionalist, ultimately failing to modernize China sufficiently in the face of increasing demands for change.

European powers, seeking trade and influence, encouraged modernization in China, but their pressure, combined with Cixi's conservatism, sparked resistance, exemplified by the Boxer Rebellion.

China's internal unrest and external threats, particularly from Japan, forced it to accept protection from Western powers, who in return demanded trade concessions.

China's traditional scholar-gentry, a highly educated bureaucracy, was abandoned in favor of modernization, marking a significant departure from centuries of tradition.

From 1900 to 1911, the Chinese government, with the help of foreign advisors, continued to modernize despite resistance from Empress Cixi and the Boxer Rebellion, reflecting a complex dynamic between traditional and modern forces within China.

Muhammad Ali, ruler of Egypt from 1805 to 1849, implemented reforms to modernize Egypt's economy, including taxing peasants heavily, secularizing religious lands, and promoting state-sponsored industrialization.

The policy of Muhammad Ali to increase agricultural production in Egypt by forcing peasants to give up their land to the state, who then controlled valuable cotton exports.

Muhammad Ali's initiative to establish industrial sectors in Egypt, including textile factories, armaments production, and shipbuilding, to compete with European powers.

A period of isolation in Japan from 1600 to 1854, limiting contact with the outside world, until Western powers pressured Japan for trade and ports.

Commodore Matthew Perry's mission to Japan in 1853 with American warships, demanding trade privileges and leading to the end of Japan's isolation.

The Japanese government's extensive reforms in response to Western pressure, including abolishing feudalism, establishing a constitutional monarchy, modernizing the military, and expanding education.

The government's support and investment in industrial development in Japan during the Meiji era, particularly in key sectors like tea, silk, weaponry, and shipbuilding.

Powerful Japanese family business organizations, like conglomerates in the United States, that played a role in Japan's industrialization.

A key factor in Japan's industrialization, where private investors from overseas provided capital and technology to flourishing new industries.

The company founded by a carpenter in 1906, originally Toyoda Loom Works, which later became Toyota Motor Company, exemplifying the innovative spirit of Meiji Japan.

The central role of the government played in Japan's modernization, using taxes and policies to foster industrial development and national power.

Similar problems faced by both Western and Japanese industrial workers during the 19th century, such as exploitation and poor working conditions.

The contrast between the rapid industrialization of Japan and the slower pace of modernization in other countries, highlighting Japan's unique situation.

A company legally chartered by a government, owned by stockholders who invest in the company's operations and share the profits.

The complete control of a particular industry or market by a single company, eliminating all competition.

A company that operates across national boundaries, engaging in business activities in multiple countries.

A business owned by a single individual who makes all decisions and bears all risks.

A business owned by a small group of people who share responsibilities, profits, and risks.

A process of rapid industrial development that transformed Japan's economy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

A legal document outlining Japan's principles during the Meiji Restoration, emphasizing modernization and strength.

A set of economic policies aimed at promoting industrial growth, often involving government investment in infrastructure and support for key industries.

A more efficient steel production method developed in the 19th century, leading to increased steel production.

A period of rapid technological advancement marked by new machines and processes, transforming industries and daily life.

The introduction of new ways to organize and manage businesses, including the rise of corporations and transnational companies.

Corporations are businesses owned by stockholders who purchase shares of the company. These shares represent ownership in the corporation.

The stockholders of a corporation are the people who own shares in the company. They are considered partial owners.

The stock market is a place where shares of publicly traded corporations are bought and sold. Shareholders have a stake in the company's profits.

A monopoly occurs when a single company controls an entire industry, eliminating competition and potentially leading to higher prices.

Cecil Rhodes, a British businessman, was a major figure in the expansion of the British Empire, particularly in Africa. He was known for his wealth and colonial ambitions.

Transnational corporations operate in multiple countries, creating a global network of production and trade.

Consumerism is a culture focused on the purchase and consumption of goods and services, often driven by advertising and increasing living standards.

Urbanization is the process of people moving from rural areas to cities, often due to increasing job opportunities and industrial growth.

The Bessemer process was an innovative steel making technique that made steel production more efficient and cheaper, leading to its widespread use in infrastructure and construction.

Labor unions represent workers' interests, negotiating with employers for better wages, working conditions, and benefits.

The Sadler Report, published in 1833, documented horrific working conditions in factories, revealing the harsh realities of industrial life.

The Industrial Revolution led to significant changes in society, sparking various social and political movements, including labor unions, utopian socialism, and calls for reform.

Utopian socialists believed in creating ideal societies free from inequality and injustice, often through communal living and shared resources.

John Stuart Mill, a philosopher, argued for social reforms to address the harshness of the industrial era. He advocated for individual liberty and social justice.

Trade unions are organized groups of workers who collectively negotiate with employers for better wages, working conditions, and benefits.

British Parliament passed a series of reforms in the 19th century to expand voting rights for men, gradually reducing property ownership requirements, ultimately leading to universal male suffrage in 1918.

Laws were passed in Britain during the 19th century to restrict children's work, especially in dangerous industries like coal mines, and promote education as a priority over child labor.

The Industrial Revolution's impact on society led to new economic philosophies and critiques of capitalism, with thinkers like Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill offering different perspectives.

A philosophy that prioritizes actions that create the greatest happiness for the most people, often advocating for gradual reforms to address social issues.

A German scholar who advocated for a classless society where the working class would overthrow the capitalist system and control the means of production.

The working class, who sold their labor to capitalists in exchange for wages, according to Marx's theory.

The wealthy class, including investors and owners of factories and machinery, who exploit the proletariat in Marx's view.

Marx's ideal final stage of economic development, where class distinctions would disappear, and wealth would be shared equally.

Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II's reforms aimed to strengthen the central government, modernize the military, and introduce secular education and European-style administration.

A period of Ottoman reforms focused on centralizing power, promoting education, and codifying laws to modernize the administration and attract foreign investment.

The educated class of Muslim scholars who previously controlled education in the Ottoman Empire.

A commercial code implemented during the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire to facilitate trade and attract foreign investment, aiming to modernize the legal and economic system.

A penal code adopted during the Tanzimat reforms in the Ottoman Empire, aiming to standardize legal practices and create a more modern criminal justice system.

A legal document declared by the Ottoman Sultan in 1856 that aimed to update the legal system by establishing equality for all men regardless of their religion or ethnicity in areas like education, government jobs, and the justice system.

Separate legal courts established by different religious communities within the Ottoman Empire, each using its own set of religious laws.

The period of economic changes that occurred alongside the Tanzimat Reforms in the Ottoman Empire, characterized by the decline in prices for food and other crops, the rise of a global economy, growing reliance on cash payments, and increasing industrialization.

A period of significant change in Ottoman society where the legal reforms did not necessarily benefit women equally. While women had historically enjoyed certain rights under Islamic law, the Tanzimat reforms made the legal system more secular, impacting women's property rights.

A period of time in which Emperor Guangxu and a group of reformers, mainly led by Kang Youwei, made significant attempts to modernize China, introducing numerous changes.

The Empress Dowager Cixi, who opposed the reforms, was concerned about foreign influence and feared that the reforms would lead to a loss of traditional values.

The civil service system in China, based on Confucian values and ideals, became a target for reform during the late 19th century. The system faced challenges from corruption and lack of qualifications among civil servants.

A series of reforms undertaken in the late 19th century by the Qing dynasty as a response to internal and external challenges, aiming to modernize China through military advancements, industrialization, and improvements in education.

The defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 led to a significant increase in the demand for reforms in the country. It showed that China was falling behind other nations in modernization and military strength.

This refers to the period in history when a ruler or leader becomes more interested in modernizing or keeping things as they were, in the case of Cixi, she was initially resistant to reforms but eventually accepted them as the situation demanded change.

It is the process by which a nation strengthens its military capabilities and prepares for potential conflict. The Ottoman and Chinese governments both felt the need to modernize their militaries to compete with other powerful nations in their respective regions.

Empress Cixi initially opposed the Hundred Days of Reform because she feared foreign influence. She viewed the reforms as a potential threat to traditional values and believed that they would undermine China's independence. She ultimately opposed reforms on the basis that they would make China more vulnerable to outside powers.

The Ottoman reforms aimed at establishing equality for men, but women were largely excluded from these benefits. This resulted in women facing a loss of certain rights compared to historical practices under Islamic law.