Social Contract Theory and Enlightenment Thinkers

• Study notes on the Enlightenment Thinkers, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, Federalist and Anti-Federalist Papers, various plans and compromises, presidential power, and more

The Enlightenment Thinkers

• Emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism toward traditional authority
• Ideas profoundly influenced political thought and revolutions

John Locke (1632-1704)

• Key Idea: Advocated for natural rights and limited government
• Social Contract Theory: Emphasized individual rights
• Argued governments are formed to protect rights, including life, liberty, and property
• Believed humans were reasonable and cooperative in the "state of nature"
• Argued a social contract forms a government protecting rights with limited power based on consent
• Locke's ideas profoundly impacted liberal democratic thought
• Heavily influenced the American Revolution and the drafting of the U.S. Constitution

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

• Key Idea: Believed in absolute monarchy and the necessity of a strong ruler
• Social Contract Theory: Argued humans were driven by self-interest in the state of nature
• Believed life without government would be "poor, nasty, and short"
• Posited people would surrender rights to an absolute sovereign for security and protection
• Advocated this powerful leader should have absolute authority to maintain peace and order
• Hobbes' view on human nature and advocacy for absolute monarchy were influential

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1588-1679)

• Key Idea: Promoted the concept of the general will and direct democracy
• Social Contract Theory: Argued legitimate political authority comes from collective agreement
• Believed humans were originally free and equal, but private property led to inequality and conflict
• Proposed a just society requires citizens to agree to form a collective will, transcending individual desires
• Advocated for direct democracy, where people make laws and decisions themselves
• Rousseau's ideas influenced revolutionary movements, including the French Revolution

Declaration of Independence

Provisions

• Preamble: Explains the colonies' reasons for separating from Britain, asserting the need to explain the decision with respect
• Statement of Human/Natural Rights: Declares self-evident truths, including equality and unalienable rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
• List of Grievances: Lists specific complaints against King George, highlighting violations of rights like imposing taxes without consent
• Attempts to Address Grievances: Recounts the colonies' efforts to resolve issues peacefully, which the King repeatedly refused
• Declaration of Independence: Formally declares the colonies as free and independent states with full rights to engage in international actions

Goals

• Justify the Break from Britain: Explain the colonies' decision to declare independence by highlighting the violation of their rights by King George
• Assert Natural Rights: Affirm unalienable rights and justify the right to overthrow governments that fail to protect them
• Unite the Colonies: Bring the colonies together under a common cause and gain support for independence globally

Articles of Confederation

• The first constitution of the United States adopted in 1777 and ratified in 1781
• Established a confederation of sovereign states with a weak central government
• Replaced by the Constitution in 1789

Successes

• Winning the Revolutionary War: Provided the structure for the U.S. government during the American Revolution
• The central government coordinated efforts, secured international alliances, and managed the military
• Created policy to create new states out of western territories, setting the precedent for westward expansion
• Unified Foreign Policy: Allowed the central government to conduct foreign affairs, negotiate treaties, and manage relations with Native American tribes

Failures

• Weak Central government: The central government was intentionally weak, leaving most power to the states
• Prevented the central government from enforcing binding laws or decisions
• No Power to Tax: Prevented the central government from raising revenue, leading to financial problems and difficulty funding operations
• No Power to Regulate Trade: Prevented regulation of interstate or international trade, resulting in economic disorganization
• Law Passing: Created a unicameral Congress with no executive or judicial branches, and made decision-making difficult and slow
• Shay's Rebellion: Highlighted the Article's weakness, revealing the need for a stronger federal government to maintain order and stability
• Lack of National Military: Meant the central government had no power to maintain a standing army

Federalist and Anti-Federalist Papers

• Both written in the late 18th century regarding the U.S. Constitution
• Reflected the debate over the balance of power between the federal government and the states

Federalist Papers

• Federalist No. 51
  • Author: James Madison
  • Main Argument: Addressed the need for checks and balances and the separation of powers

- Argued each branch's desire to grow will prevent others from becoming tyrannical
- Key Idea: Protection of rights and prevention of tyranny through checks and balances

• Federalist No. 70
  • Author: Alexander Hamilton
  • Main Argument: Argued for a strong, energetic executive/president
  • Claimed a single executive would be more accountable, efficient, and decisive in crises
  • Key Idea: A strong, single executive is necessary for an effective government
• Federalist No. 78
  • Author: Alexander Hamilton
  • Main Argument: Addressed concerns about the judiciary

- Argued for judicial independence with life tenure for judges based on law, not politics
- Believed the judiciary would be the least dangerous branch
- Key Idea: Judicial Independence is vital to safeguard liberty

Anti-Federalist Papers

• Brutus No. 1
  • Author: Unknown
  • Main Argument: Critiqued the Constitution for creating a too-powerful central government
  • Feared it would overpower the states and lead to a loss of individual freedoms
  • Claimed it cannot represent citizens' diverse interests
• Brutus No. 9
  • Author: Unknown
  • Main Argument: Discussed the danger of the federal judiciary
  • Feared judicial overreach of the judicial court system
  • Key Idea: Judicial overreach and the threat of an unaccountable, powerful judiciary.
• Brutus No. 84
  • Author: Unknown
  • Main Argument: Criticized the lack of a Bill of Rights in the Constitution
  • Argued its absence would threaten individual freedoms by leaving too much power in the federal government
  • Key Idea: That the absence of a Bill of Rights is a flaw that threatens individual freedoms

New Jersey Plan, Virginia Plan, and Connecticut Compromise

• Key proposals during the Constitutional Convention of 1787

Virginia Plan

• Proposed By: James Madison for the larger states
• Main Ideas:
  • Bicameral Legislature: Called for a two-house legislature
  • Representation Based on Population: Called for representation in Congress based on state population
  • Strong Central Government: Called for broad federal power

New Jersey Plan

• Proposed By: William Paterson, representing smaller states
• Main Ideas:
  • Unicameral Legislature: Proposed equal representation per state, regardless of population
  • State Sovereignty: Sought to maintain state powers while granting federal powers to regulate trade and taxation
  • Weak Executive: Called for an executive commitee

Connecticut Compromise

• Proposed by: Roger Sherman of Connecticut
• Main Ideas
  • Bicameral Legislature: Two house legislature - House of Representatives and a Senate
  • Representation in the House: Representation would be based on population
  • Representation in the Senate: Each state would have equal representation
  • Power Distribution: Combined elements of large and small state plans

Article II

• Outlines the executive branch's powers and duties, placing them in the hands of the president
• States “Executive Power is Vested in a President”

Skowronek

• Presidential Time: The political authority when a new president takes office
• Cycles of Presidential Power: Shaped by recurring regimes and its evolution

Categories of Leadership

Reconstructive Presidents

• Emerge during regime decay/crisis to create a new political regime
• Examples: Jefferson, Lincoln, FDR

Disjunctive Presidents

• Lead in times of decline but fail to enact change
• Examples: Hoover

Preemptive Presidents

• Take power during unsettled periods and seek stabilize existing regimes
• Examples: Nixon, Jackson

Articulative Presidents

• Work within stable regimes as the political system spokespersons
• Examples: Madison, Eisenhower
• Categories Based on Their Relationship to Regime:

Neustadt

• The Nature of Presidential Power
  • Neustadt argues that presidential power is at its core the power to persuade, rather than command
  • separated institutions share the power
  • Status and authority give bargaining power/advantages

The Marshall Plan

• Is a classic case where Truman presidential power depended on bargaining and allies such as General George Marshall.

- The risks he took:

• Even though the plan was widely supported Truman still had to be careful
• The president's past decisions shape his future power by influencing relationships and perceptions

Explore social contract theories of Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau. Understand their views on individual rights, the role of government, and the 'general will'. Analyze their influence on modern political thought.