Fire officer handbook of tactics chapter 23

• Terrorism targets civilians to promote a political or criminal agenda and goes against the fire service's mission to assist those in need without discrimination.
• Firefighters address terrorist attacks by rescuing victims from collapsed structures, extinguishing fires, and offering medical care.
• Responders are exposed to dangers like secondary collapse, fire, and blood-borne pathogens, with the increasing threat of more deadly attacks.
• All fire service members must understand their role in responding to terrorist events and take measures to ensure public and personal safety.
• No region is immune to terrorism, with incidents occurring across the nation from Boston to San Bernardino.

Defining Terrorism

• Terrorism is a threat to society.
• The FBI defines terrorism as using force or violence unlawfully against individuals or property to intimidate or coerce governments or civilians for political or social goals.
• This definition does not specifically mention religion but focuses on coercion.
• Terrorism has many forms, including state, religious, ethnocentric/racial supremacy, nationalist, revolutionary, social, and narco-terrorism.
• Types of terrorism include state terrorism as seen in Saddam Hussein’s Iraq and Bashar al-Assad’s Syria.
• Religious terrorism is exemplified by ISIS, the Ulster Volunteer Force, and the Irish Republican Army.
• Ethnocentric/racial supremacy terrorism is represented by groups like the Ku Klux Klan.
• Nationalist terrorism includes the Puerto Rican group FALN and Basque separatists in Spain.
• Revolutionary terrorism is associated with anarchists and sovereign citizen groups.
• Social terrorism involves anti-abortion activists, ecoterrorism groups like the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), and animal rights extremists like the Animal Liberation Front (ALF).
• Narco-terrorism involves drug cartels.
• The threat can vary by region, from radical religious groups to radical environmental or animal rights groups.

Preparing for Terrorism

• The fire service responds to terrorism and must be prepared.
• Knowing which groups are active in your area helps emergency responders prepare for likely incidents.
• Partnership with law enforcement and the Joint Terrorism Task Force (JTTF) can help organizations stay updated on potential threats.
• Monitoring social media is a way to identify potential disruptions.
• Fire and emergency services deal with the aftermath of successful attacks, despite law enforcement being responsible for prevention.
• Staying informed about potential attacks provides valuable insight.

Historical Context of Terrorism

• Terrorist attacks have occurred since at least 1910 with the Los Angeles Times bombing.
• Other attacks include the Wall Street bombing in 1920 and a chemical attack on the New York Stock Exchange in the 1930s.
• The 1920 Wall Street bomb killed 40 and injured 300 and was attributed to anarchists.
• Terror campaigns in the U.S. include attacks by FALN and the Weathermen.
• FALN set off 49 bombs in New York City from 1974 to 1977.
• The Weathermen bombed property, especially government buildings, after an explosion at their bomb factory in 1970.
• Fewer than 100 people died from over 100 bombs set off by the Weathermen and FALN combined.
• Extreme overseas nationalist groups have targeted the U.S. such as the Croatian nationalists detonating a bomb at LaGuardia Airport in December 1975, killing 11.
• Terrorist bombings are increasing, differing from earlier campaigns and aiming to inflict mass casualties without concern for alienating the public.

Modern Terrorism

• Al-Qaeda and ISIS aim to "destroy the table and everyone sitting at it" not attempting to negotiate.
• Terrorists use the "swarming technique," with multiple, concurrent attacks meant to overwhelm defenses such as the September 11, 2001 attacks
• The Madrid train bombings in March 2004 involved 10 bombs detonating nearly simultaneously on four different trains, killing nearly 200 and wounding 1,400.
• The 1993 WTC bombing demonstrated radical Islamic terrorism.
• The goal of the 1993 WTC bombing was to bring down both towers, which Al-Qaeda later accomplished.
• Mixing and delivering massive bombs became easier, demonstrated by the 1993 WTC bombing and the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing.
• A radical Islamic plot to bomb bridges, tunnels, and office buildings in New York City was disrupted in 1995.
• In 1996, another group of Islamic terrorists were captured in Park Slope, Brooklyn, before they detonated a bomb in the Flatbush Avenue terminal.
• Responders, including rescuers, are targets of terrorists as demonstrated by the secondary device that exploded after a bombing of an abortion clinic in Atlanta, GA, in 1996.
• Firefighters must recognize potential secondary devices after an obvious bombing and report suspicious objects.
• Firefighters recognized clues of a car bomb in Times Square in May 2010 and evacuated the area.
• Secondary devices are often located on the perimeter of the blast site, aimed at emergency responders.
• Weapons of mass destruction (WMD) or chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive (CBRNE) weapons pose a severe threat.
• Islamic extremists have used chemical weapons in IEDs against American forces and civilians.
• Firefighters can protect themselves by recognizing these weapons.
• Situational awareness helps firefighters to be aware of potential terrorist events utilizing either conventional or WMD/CBRNE methods.

Potential Terrorist Targets

• Potential terrorist targets include world landmarks, financial institutions, media and corporate headquarters, ideological targets, and educational research labs.
• World landmarks: WTC, United Nations, Golden Gate Bridge, Statue of Liberty, Fraunces Tavern, Seattle’s Space Needle, Los Angeles International Airport
• Financial institutions: The New York Stock Exchange, American Stock Exchange, commodities exchanges, bank headquarters
• Media and corporate headquarters: ABC, NBC, CBS, Mobil Oil, Exxon
• Ideological targets: Government offices, especially Internal Revenue Service (IRS), military bases and recruiting offices, abortion clinics
• Educational research labs: Especially those conducting animal research, such as Columbia University and Stanford
• Al-Qaeda’s target list includes energy facilities, transportation facilities, and soft targets.
• Energy facilities: Nuclear power plants and conventional electrical generating sites, refineries, pipelines, and tank farms.
• Transportation facilities: Airports and aircraft, rail hubs and trains, bridges, shipping and port facilities.
• Soft targets: Recent attacks have struck apartment houses, hotels, and other residential buildings, and places of worship, particularly synagogues.
• Incidents that meet specific criteria should raise suspicion, including recognizable landmarks, crowded public locations, reports of "persons overcome by fumes," explosions, and threats.
• The fire service goes into people’s homes and businesses and are in a position to identify threats.
• An alert firefighter in the Philippines averted a devastating plot against the United States.
• Fire and EMS personnel have immediate access to buildings during emergencies.
• Terrorists may flee when emergency responders arrive to avoid having their cover blown.
• Fire prevention inspections can uncover plots or signs of suspicious activities.
• Personnel who suspect something is amiss should avoid overt action and contact authorities after leaving the premises.
• Every emergency vehicle should have contact information for the local police detective squad and the nearest FBI office or Joint Terrorism Task Force.
• Use hard-wired telephones instead of cell phones or radios to avoid being overheard.

Potential Indicators of Ongoing Terrorist Activities

• Weapons found in unusual quantities or out of place for the locale (e.g., not in a hunting lodge or for personal protection).
• Surveillance indicators Maps, photos, blueprints of potential targets Telephoto lens and video cameras, night vision equipment, GPS units
• Protective clothing Masks Chemical suits Rubber gloves
• Laboratory equipment Beakers and other glassware Ice baths (glassware sitting in ice) Petri dishes Distillation equipment Improvised ventilation equipment Enclosed fume hoods Glove boxes Exhaust fans temporarily located near sinks, stoves, and so on
• Precursor chemicals Fertilizer containing ammonium nitrate, acetone, diesel fuel, peroxides (e.g., hydrogen peroxide) Cyanides (sodium cyanide, potassium cyanide, etc.) Acids

Appropriate uses vs. Suspicious activity

• Many items are found in legitimate businesses.
• The same equipment found in the cellar of an apartment house or in a rented locker at a storage facility should prompt an immediate alert to law enforcement.
• Every firefighter should be aware of what materials are appropriate for the occupancy they are found in and what is out of place and reported to law enforcement.

Understanding Terrorists

• Factors that make communities a target include a large concentration of people, immediate worldwide media coverage, and a large, diverse community for anonymity.
• Emergency responders need to be aware of the potential uses of everyday materials and be prepared to handle them.
• Perspective is needed when dealing with the terrorist threat.
• We must put into perspective threats like chemical, biological, and nuclear weapons.
• The main categories of attack scenarios used in the past or being developed by terrorists are active shooter/sniper/siege, fire, explosives, chemical, biological, or radiological/nuclear attacks.

Active Shooter, Sniper, or Siege Events

• NFPA 3000 provides a standard for handling Active Shooter/Hostile Event Responses (ASHER).
• The active shooter event has become prominent in terrorism.
• Mass shootings are the method of choice due to relative lack of sophistication.
• Terrorists attract media attention.
• The siege is a terror tactic and it is critical that personnel are prepared for rapidly deploying if terrorists attempt to use fire.
• The goal in hostage situations has become hostage taking and executions.
• Fire and emergency medical personnel should be prepared for that during these times several past attacks have involved fires set or explosives detonated as law enforcement begins their rescue effort.

Joint Command

• Communities must develop procedures for dealing with active shooter and siege incidents, with all emergency responders working together.
• The new NFPA 3000 emphasizes the need to implement a joint command structure and closely coordinate all activities.
• Multiple staging areas should be designated for fire apparatus and ambulances on several sides of the structure or complex.
• Ensure that clear approach and egress routes remain open, particularly for the EMS areas.
• Staging areas should be out of the line of sight of any building that contains a shooter, including the roof level.
• Active shooting scenes should be sectored into hot, warm, and cold zones.

Sectoring

• A hot zone is any area where there is a known hazard.
• Only law enforcement personnel should operate in a hot zone.
• A warm zone is an area searched by law enforcement with no obvious hazards present, but it has not yet undergone an intensive search.
• Law enforcement will isolate entrances to a warm zone.
• A cold zone is behind a perimeter secured by law enforcement.
• Fire and EMS command posts and staging areas should be in the cold zone.

Protection

• Bulletproof vests is something to which every fire department should give serious consideration.
• Active shooting scenes are chaotic.
• Minimize the use of sirens and other audible warning devices when approaching the scene.
• Interagency communications are critical.
• A joint command post (CP) is a necessity.
• Plan for cell phone service to crash.
• Ensure that all fire and EMS personnel are clearly identifiable.
• Personnel should be accompanied by a uniformed law enforcement escort for protection.
• Know how to behave during an encounter with law enforcement.
• Concentrate on triage, treatment, and transport.

Triage

• Fire and EMS units responding to any sort of active shooter incident must coordinate their actions with law enforcement and focus on rapid triage of casualties.
• Every patient should be check for weapons before they are brought to this triage transfer point.
• Rescue teams must enter as soon as law enforcement has secured the area.
• Responders entering for rescue should be prepared for rapid treatment of gunshot and knife wounds, concentrating on hemorrhage and airway control.
• Triage tags should be applied as soon as patients are reached.
• Rescuers must be prepared to "scoop and go," limiting patient care to stopping life-threatening bleeding and ensuring an open airway.
• Communities should prepare readily movable packages of trauma treatment gear.
• Rescuers should consider having their own personal "blowout kits" for treating themselves.

Fire as a weapon

• Fire can be the primary weapon of a terrorist used to create distractions, create signals, incite others, damage specific targets, destroy everything in a widespread area during civil disturbances, and draw first responders into ambushes.
• Protective measures include time, distance, and shielding.
• Time as a protective measure means delaying actions until law enforcement can contain or neutralize the threat.
• Distance refers to the lessening threat from small arms fire.
• Shielding refers to solid barriers between us and any threats.

Terrorist WMD Agents and CBRNE Weapons

• Attacks involving weapons of mass destruction (WMD) are the most concerning to security officials and responders.
• WMD attacks have the potential for killing large numbers of people.
• Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosive (CBRNE) weapons include fast-acting chemical agents and highly toxic industrial chemical such as chlorine or hydrogen cyanide.
• Chemical agents, such as TIH chemicals, are shipped throughout the United States.
• Emergency responders must be familiar with chemical agent exposure to be able to protect themselves and the public.
• Terrorists have used chlorine and mustard gas as weapons.
• Toxic industrial materials—such as organophosphate pesticides and insecticides like parathion—have been used as chemical weapons.
• The signs and symptoms are similar to those seen in nerve agent exposure, which produce fatal injuries, though the likelihood of victims surviving is greater than for nerve agents with the benefit of medical treatment and detoxification.
• Nerve agents signs and symptoms include salivation, lacrimation, urination, defecation, gastrointestinal distress, emesis, and muscle twitching.
• Vesicants (blister) agents signs and symptoms include pain blisters; burning; tearing, shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting, and death.
• Choking agents signs and symptoms include eye, nose, and throat irritation, coughing, wheezing, difficulty breathing, and death.
• Blood agent signs and symptoms include extreme difficulty breathing, altered mental status, nausea, vomiting, seizures, cardiac arrest, and death in 1–3 minutes.
• Incapacitating Agents (teargas; CS, CN) signs and symptoms include burning pain of skin and eyes, irregular respiration.

Operations at Chemical Attacks

• The threat of chemical attack, is the most likely WMD attack that Americans might face is through toxic industrial chemicals.
• Accidental release of the TIH methyl isocyanate killed people in Bhopal, India.
• Incident objectives for fire personnel is to control the situation by removing entrapped people in the area, then triaging, decontaminating, administering the antidote, treating, and transporting injured people.
• Operations may include mitigating any chemical dispersal devices (beware of booby traps).
• Report of more than one person unconscious or reports of chemical odors or fumes might indicate that a chemical attack has begun.
• Approach the area and stage the apparatus and equipment upwind and away from any potential sources of contamination.
• At a fire, the location and time usually indicate the potential life hazard.

Recognizing an Attack

• At a fire, the location and time usually indicate the potential life hazard.
• An unknown odor in the suburbs is probably a gas leak, but the same condition occurring at any of the targets previously described, you should expect a terrorist attack.
• Obvious explosion damage should automatically prompt a protective response.
• Take several moments on arrival to observe conditions, especially the occupants.
• Examine civilians leaving the area for the early indications of a chemical attack.
• The signs and symptoms they display can often identify victims of nerve agent attacks.
• One reality of a chemical attack a crowded location is that the first sign of the attack will usually be biological indicators.
• Wear full bunker gear, gloves, mask face piece on, hood up, and earflaps down to cover all skin.
• Bunker gear is not intended to protect you against chemical agents, but it may reduce the agent’s skin contact.
• Avoid unprotected skin contact with any victim; they may have liquid on their clothes or skin.
• Only be alert, be properly trained, and react instinctively and appropriately to the first indication to avoid becoming a fatality..
• Visible vapor clouds Biological indicators: dead or dying people, animals, birds
• Multiple victims down for unknown reasons Displaying any of the symptoms listed in table 23–1 Positive indication on military M-8 paper.
• M-9 tape, or a chemical agent monitor (CAM; confirm CAM readings with M-8 or M-9 detection paper).

Command Procedures

• IC decision should include rescue operation or defensive operation.
• Establish an incident command system (ICS) and command post (CP).
• By observation, suspect that a chemical agent is involved in the sitrep for short at their location in an attempt to define the perimeter of the incident area.
• All units other than the first- and/or second-arriving units are not to enter the hazard area, until initial reports.
• Request additional chemical protective clothing equipped resources for entry.
• Isolate the area, control site access: vehicular and pedestrian traffic, and the building entrances and exits of surrounding properties.
• Establish communications with units on scene prior to arrival of the IC.
• The IC should consider the potential for secondary attacks aimed at responders.
• Do not create large congregations of responders, which could become targets of secondary attacks.
• Provide sufficient resources to cover the number of patients that may require decon and patient triage, treatment, and transport.
• Designate one or more SCBA cylinder air supply depots in safe, upwind areas.
• The first-due engine company should stage apparatus and equipment upwind and away from any potential sources of contamination such as exhaust fan discharges.
• If observations of signs and symptoms indicate such, alert other responders with a radio report, declaring a hazardous material terrorist attack.

Strategic Actions

• Protective measures and procedures and follow officers supervision.
• A fully protected rescuer, operating only in areas where there are still live victims, should be able to safely retreat from those areas without suffering serious effects, as long as the rescuer is decontaminated promptly after exiting.
• Firefighters in bunker gear should not attempt any task, including rescue, that would delay their immediate withdrawal and decontamination.
• Test has failed to anticipate that many such exposures would be in heavily contaminated areas such as subways, as opposed to the open-air battlefield conditions.
• Perform actions immediately: If fully protected, then alert other members, officers, and the IC to the situation.
• Leave the area immediately through an uncontaminated route.
• If fully protected, then alert other members, officers, and the IC to the situation and leave via a contamination free route.
• Officers who observe patients displaying the signs and symptoms in Table 23–1 should transmit “Mayday—gas attack” via handie-talkie.
• Call for a handline to flush the personnel still breathing.
• Perform actions immediately If fully protected, then alert other members, officers, and the IC to the situation.
• Units are with members in specialized CPC and who are carrying chemical agent detection meters.

Team Work and Safety

• Two-person survey team may have to perform an initial reconnaissance of the reported “unknown odor” area and don SCBA.
• Backup team and a decon team must be in place.
• Backup team should first help dress the initial entry team, ensuring that all exposed skin is covered.

Decontamination (Decon)

• The primary duty is to ensure that a decon area has been established so that before the end of their air supply, emergency responders can safely be taken off air.
• Ensure this area is set up to avoid future contamination by keeping apparatus away from exhaust fans and preferably remote from and uphill of any decon areas set up for civilians.
• After the decon team has ensured that decon capability is ready, they should assist the backup team in dressing.
• If a chemical agent detector is capable of accurate, near real-time vapor qualification.
• Offensive operations require personnel.
• Defensive operations are where nonambulatory victims injured in a chemical attack cannot be saved and all acknowledge that they are more valuable alive than dead and doing more good.

Biological Weapons

• Biological agents are living organisms that cause disease.
• These disease-causing agents are serious health concerns in their natural form, but medicine and science have reduced the threat that they pose.
• In the mid-1700s, it is alleged that the British Army gave smallpox-infected blankets to Native Americans.
• The Rajneeshees attacked residents of The Dalles, Oregon, using Salmonella in an effort to affect the outcome of a local election.
• Biological agents fall into three main categories and include the following: Toxins, bacteria and rickettsia and viruses.
• The CDC considers agents the primary potential terrorist weapons: tularemia, botulinum toxin, anthrax, bubonic plague, smallpox, and viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs).
• Toxins are poisonous substances produced within living organisms such as plants, animals, or microorganisms.
• Botulinum is an extremely toxic that produces death and often associated the eating food that has been exposed to C. botulinum spores that has not be canned or jarred.
• C. botulinum spores occur naturally in soil worldwide.
• CDClisted C. botulinum, which is one of the six highest-risk threat agents of bioterrorism.
• Treatment is antitoxin that can be administered early enough.
• Ricin is made from the castor bean plant and used successfully by injection. Neither ricin nor C. botulinum will penetrate intact skin. Inhalation or ingestion are the primary hazards, although injection also poses a potentially deadly danger.
• Rickettsia are microorganisms that travel within the bodies of insects that bite humans, including spotted fever, Q fever, and epidemic typhus.

Bacterial Infections

• Bacteria are single-celled living organisms capable of causing disease in plants, animals, and humans.
• Bubonic plague is transmitted to humans by flea bites and spread through rodent populations.
• Anthrax is a noncontagious bacterial disease that is spread by inhalation, ingestion or skin contact Contact with anthrax spores produces black lesions on the skin.
• The more dangerous form develops when spores are inhaled and develop into inhalation anthrax.
• It is crucial that anyone who is exposed begin an antibiotic regimen as soon as possible.
• Viral diseases are Ebola, Marburg, Machupo, dengue fever, smallpox, encephalitis, and yellow fever and spread through air exchange. A patient with hemorr...