Targets of the Turkish Revolution

Targets of the Turkish Revolution

• Revolution means change, transformation, or transition and is synonymous with the Turkish word for revolution
• Revolution broadly means radical change and renovation of a nation's institutions in politics, education, law, economy, and social life
• Modernization efforts during the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century were called reforms
• Reform means correction and improvement, reorganizing institutions to meet society's needs by eliminating shortcomings
• Intellectuals trained in contemporary knowledge and values developed new ideas, reforms were brought from the army to the economy, there was no radical change, and reforms were insufficient to prevent the state's disintegration
• Accumulation of reforms served as the preparatory phase for the Turkish Revolution.
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, an Ottoman officer educated in modern Ottoman educational institutions, led the Turkish Revolution
• The Turkish Revolution was carried out in three stages:
  • Full independence was gained through the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922), establishing a new Turkish State within the borders of the National Pact.
  • The Ottoman sultanate was abolished.
  • The Treaty of Lausanne was signed, the political and economic independence of Turkey was recognized, and a democratic state was established with the Republic's proclamation.
• Revolutionary movements ensured the continuity of the newly established state.
• The Turkish Revolution saved society from wavering between modernization and traditionalism and turned Turkey towards the West in less than 20 years
• Atatürk defined the Turkish Revolution as destroying institutions that held the Turkish nation back and establishing new ones to ensure progress
• Old institutions were replaced, and a new life view suited to the age was adopted
• Atatürk saw modernization and development as crucial for survival, emphasizing Turkish history and language to preserve society's identity
• Revolutionary decisions were made carefully, waiting for the right environment and conditions
• The Turkish revolution under Atatürk is an original model with no external influence, raising Turkey to the level of contemporary civilizations
• Atatürk defined contemporary civilization as Western civilization and democratic countries
• Despite intense wars with Western countries, Atatürk didn't view the West as enemies but aimed to maintain ideological, cultural, and cooperative ties, respecting Turkey's independence
• The Turkish Revolution was a national struggle against imperialism in the 20th century
• The struggle was for national independence, not a class struggle, and demonstrated that powerful imperialist states could be defeated by national resistance
• Peoples in South Asia and North Africa followed the National Struggle and establishment of the Republic of Turkey with interest
• Mustafa Kemal Pasha urged colonial societies to fight for national liberation during the War of Independence
• The Turkish Revolution served as a modernization model for "oppressed nations" seeking independence from colonial rule after World War II

Revolutions Made in the Field of Law

• The Ottoman State's legal system had both Sharia law and Customary law
• The Tanzimat period saw a move towards Western law, with secular legal foundations based on France and Italy
• While new laws were enacted, the traditional Ottoman legal structure remained, resulting in a dual legal structure
• During the transition from the Ottoman Empire to the Republic, the primary goal was to eliminate legal diversity and establish unity
• The Sharia Courts were abolished on March 3, 1924, and the 1924 Constitution was adopted, accelerating legal reforms
• The aim was to create a modern, secular Turkish legal system that meets society's needs

The 1924 Constitution

• It was necessary to change the 1921 Constitution, which was short and prepared during wartime because of the victory of the National Struggle and the adoption of the Republic regime
• A constitution preparation committee consisting of experts and deputies was formed for this purpose
• The assembly adopted the constitution, which met the needs of a modern state, on April 20, 1924, called the Constitution of the Fundamental Organization
• The 1924 Constitution had one hundred and five articles in six sections, regulating the establishment of the state, its organs, their functioning and provisions regarding rights and freedoms
• The principle of unity of powers was still adopted within the 1924 Constitution
• It was accepted that the judiciary would be used by independent courts
• The state was defined as a republic, and sovereignty belonged to the nation without reservation
• Turkish was designated the official language, and Islam was the religion
• The state's religion was specified in the constitution to create a contradiction, even though the Caliphate was abolished and the Ministry of Sharia and Evkaf was terminated
• On April 10, 1928, the article designating Islam as the state religion was removed through an amendment
• 1924 Constitution was given a secular character
• The 1924 Constitution was repealed with the military coup of 1960 and had 7 amendments over time
• Six principles were included in the constitution and became the state's basic characteristics by the most comprehensive amendment that was made on February 5, 1937
• The second article of the constitution was changed to: “The State of Turkey is republican, nationalist, populist, statist, secular and revolutionary”

Adopted Turkish Civil Code

• Civil Code: legal rules that regulate social life and includes rights related to family, property, debts and inheritance.
• The adoption of Mecelle, which regulates civil rights, aimed at establishing a modern and secular legal system during the Tanzimat period of the Ottoman Empire
• Provisions of family and inheritance law, which were prepared based on the areas of property and debt law, were not included with the Civil Code
• A new civil code was prepared instead of the Mecelle, due to the adoption of the republican regime
• The Swiss Civil Code was adopted due to being democratic, secular, easy to understand, socially contented and the most recently drafted civil code in Europe
• The Minister of Justice Mahmut Esat Bey, who had a law education in Switzerland, being familiar with the code was also effective in its selection
• A commission of 26 people, made up of legal deputies, academics, judges and lawyers, was established to prepare the Turkish Civil Code
• The commission translated the Swiss Civil Code into Turkish and prepared a new draft law, which was accepted in the Turkish Grand National Assembly on February 17, 1926, called the Turkish Civil Code
• The Turkish Civil Code replaced the provisions based on sharia with secular regulation, while also securing women's rights
• Matters, such as marriage/divorce, related to family life were regulated by the law
• A monogamous marriage was introduced, and the official marriage system was adopted
• Women were given the right to marry whomever they wanted and the right to request a divorce.
• Gender equality was introduced in terms of inheritance
• The 1926 Turkish Civil Code was repealed in 2012 and Turkish Grand National Assembly accepted the New Turkish Civil Code on November 22, 2001

Adoption of the Turkish Penal Code

• Criminal law is important for states to classify and determine crimes and penalties to maintain social order
• The French Penal Code was translated and implemented during the Tanzimat period, but Sharia law still existed
• A new law was needed instead of the Islamic penal code due to the new regulations that aimed to establish a secular state order with the declaration of the Republic
• The Italian Penal Code of 1889 was seen as the most suitable law
• On March 1, 1926, the Turkish Grand National Assembly accepted a new penal code based on the Italian Penal Code
• The Turkish Penal Code protects individual rights and freedoms, the rule of law, public health and the environment, public order and security, social peace, and prevents crime
• The law was changed from time to time
• The new Turkish Penal Code was accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on September 26, 2004 and it was repealed in 2004

Adoption of Other Fundamental Laws

• Basic laws in other areas were adopted to ensure legal unity and establish a secular legal order
• A commercial law translated from the French Commercial Code, was prepared and implemented during the Tanzimat period because of the rise in commercial and economic relations with European states
• Turkey needed a new commercial law due to being freed from all the effects of capitulations
• The Turkish Commercial Code was prepared by compiling general provisions from the Italian Commercial Code and provisions related to partnerships from German and French laws
• Turkish Grand National Assembly adopted the law on May 29, 1926, remained in force until 1956
• The Swiss Code of Obligations was used and adopted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on April 22, 1926 after the adoption of the Turkish Civil Code,
• A commission chaired by Minister of Justice Mahmut Esat Bey prepared the Execution and Bankruptcy Law in 1929 based on Swiss law
• A new Execution and Bankruptcy Law was prepared and accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on June 9, 1932 and implemented for three years
• A regulation for judges was made as judges are important for the Turkish legal system and judicial authority
• The Judges Law determined the qualifications that judges must have and determined the rules regarding appointments and their statutory rights
• Judges were given assurance so they could perform their duties independently without pressure
• Duality in the field of law in Turkey was ended and legal unity was achieved, due to the laws that were prepared based on the laws of Western countries
• A Turkish legal system that is contemporary, secular and oriented towards the needs of society was established

Women's Rights

• The change in Turkish women's status started with the Tanzimat Period
• Importance to girls' education was given and various schools were opened
• Women began to take an active role in social and economic life because of the Balkan Wars and World War I
• Turkish women's status majorly changed during the war years
• Women supported the army to liberate the homeland from occupation during the War of Independence
• Immediately after the victory of the War of Independence, the Women's People's Party first voiced women's demands for political rights
• The Women's People's Party declared being established on June 15, 1923, but could not be effective
• The Ministry of Internal Affairs didn't permit the Women's People's Party being established
• On February 7, 1924, the Turkish Women's Union was founded and operated as a civil society organization
• Issues of women's political rights were brought to the agenda by the Turkish Women's Union
• Equal rights in education were first granted to women with the Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law, then gender rights with the Turkish Civil Code of 1926, during the Republican period
• The issue of political rights did not come to the agenda because Turkish women gained equal rights with men in education, family life, inheritance and work life
• Mustafa Kemal Atatürk decided to grant women political rights because of the increase in women's activities in social and economic life, in the early 1930s
• The inclusion of "being Turkish" as a condition for voting and being elected in the New Municipality Law accepted by the Turkish Grand National Assembly on April 3, 1930
• Women used their rights to vote and be elected for the first time in the 1930 municipal elections
• Village Law on October 26, 1933, granted Turkish women the right to vote and be elected to the headmanship and village councils, due to women being allowed to participate in municipal council elections
• Women were granted the right to vote and be elected as members of parliament
• Turkish women gained the same political rights as men before women in all Muslim countries, and even before Western women such as the French and Italians
• in the TBMM session on December 5, 1934, an amendment was made to the constitution granting women the right to become members of parliament upon reaching the age of 30, and women the right to vote upon reaching the age of 22
• The first general elections after women were granted political rights were held in 1935
• CHP nominated 17 women as candidates in the elections
• 18 female deputies served in the 5th Term TBMM, because Republican regime female candidates that had adopted the values of the regime
• Republican regime female candidates were mostly well-educated and respected in society

Revolutions Made in the Field of Education and Culture

• Education in Turkey was deeply affected by the wars that occurred one after another

• The organization and continuation of education and training was given importance even under difficult conditions

• Educators enlightened the public about the national struggle and schools tried to be kept open during the War of Independence

• After the opening of the TBMM, the Board of Executive Ministers was formed, and the Ministry of Education and the central organization were also formed

• An education policy would be followed in which education and stated that education would be established with national principles and education with international principles, with the program announced by the 1st TBMM Government on May 9, 1920

• The Education Congress was held in Ankara on July 15-22, 1921, in order to discuss education issues and make plans and was led by the Minister of Education at the time, Hamdullah Suphi (Tanrıöver) Bey

• The congress that was held during a period when the Greeks were advancing on the Western Front and the Kütahya-Eskişehir Wars, showed that importance and priority were given to education

• Approximately 250 female and male teachers from various regions of the country attended the congress

• Mustafa Kemal Pasha opened the congress, due to coming from the front

• Issues such as primary and secondary education programs and training teachers for rural areas were discussed at the congress

• However, education issues remained in the background in the war environment and the decisions taken could not be implemented

• A national, contemporary and secular education system, deemed education was one of the most important issues of the country and established after the victory of the War of Independence

• Efforts were immediately initiated to organize the educational affairs in the country and prepare the necessary programs, and there was also a/an education system

• National education The aim of the institution and the main principles to be followed were put into effect by the Minister of Education of the period, İsmail Safa (Özler) Bey, with a circular that was called Education Oath, dated March 8, 1923

• The new state aimed to achieve taking the Turkish nation to the forefront in civilization, to spread primary education, give information to make new generations successful in economic life for the country's development, and unity in education in the field of education

• The 1st Scientific Committee meeting was held in July 1923 in order to organize educational affairs and prepare the necessary programs

• The opinions of foreign experts were also needed to determine the new education system,

• John Dewey was most famous among the foreign experts that were invited to Turkey at intervals and asked to conduct research on the education system that came to Turkey in 1924

• Various reforms were made to establish a contemporary and secular Turkish education system within the framework of the opinions of foreign experts and the adopted national education policy

Changing the Education-Training System-Unification of Education Law

• The main goal of the education policy of the Republic period was to spread education and teaching
• The Unification of Education Law (Unification of Education) was enacted on March 3, 1924, to put an end to the diversity in the field of education and to establish a national, contemporary and secular education system
• The law abolishing the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations was also enacted on the same day
• The Ministry of National Education connected all educational institutions throughout Turkey, including the Ministry of Religious Affairs and Foundations or all schools and madrasahs affiliated with private foundations,
• The Ministry of Religious Affairs decided to open a Faculty of Theology in Darülfünun to train high religious specialists and to open separate schools to train religious officials
• The Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law didn't mention regarding the closure of madrasahs
• The law foresaw theology and imam hatip schools, but not madrasahs
• The madrasahs were closed with the circular of the Minister of Education dated 11 March 1924
• Education affairs were carried out by a single source and the duality in the education system was ended
• The principle of secularism in education was adopted
• The Law on the Organization of Education, was accepted on 2 March 1926, in order to organize education in Turkey according to certain principles
• The Law on the Organization of Education was complementary to the Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law
• It was decided schools that would be opened could without the permission of the state and the courses that would be in schools
• A “Language Board” and a “Department of Education and Training" were established within the Ministry of Education
• The language board later took on an important role in the process of accepting the new Turkish alphabet, and the Department of Education and Training
• The Department of Education and Training has also played an important role in the conduct of educational affairs within the framework of national, contemporary and secular principles until today
• The Turkish education system was based on national principles with the Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law and the regulations made after it
• Importance was given to education being based on life
• Aim: for teaching and education methods to be practical and applied
• Primary: to teach everyone how to read and write and to eliminate illiteracy
• The principle was adopted that education should be free of charge and that basic education should be compulsory for all children
• The 1924 Constitution stated that primary education should be compulsory and free of charge, and there was one of the basic principles of the Turkish national education system called secularism
• Educational affairs were freed from the influence of religious authorities and individuals and brought under the control of the state
• Nationality, unity, secularism, modernity, the needs of the individual and society, the right to basic education for every citizen, equality of opportunity, means and gender, and the guidance of reason and science have been the basic principles that the Turkish national education system has followed until today

Activities in the Field of Primary and Secondary Education

• Primary education was provided in traditional educational institutions, primary schools, and recently opened primary schools in the Ottoman State
• During the Republic period, primary schools were closed and primary schools were renamed as primary schools, while unity in education was achieved with the Tevhid-i Tedrisat Law
• Increasing the literacy level in the country and ensuring that every child received education were among the issues that the administrators of the period emphasized
• The principle that primary education should be compulsory and provided free of charge by the state was also included in the 1924 Constitution
• Raised citizens equipped with basic civic knowledge and who embraced the Turkish revolution was the aim of primary education
• It was considered the duty of primary education to provide children with a sense of national identity
• Applications: that opportunity and gender equality were implemented in primary education, and a mixed education system was introduced in primary education in 1924
• Three years of the five-year primary education were made compulsory for all children
• Supplying schools and teachers was one of the most fundamental problems regarding primary education
• Order was only considered difficult due to the putting ordering primary education in rural areas because nearly 80% of the population lived in rural areas during this period
• The desired level of development in the field of primary education could not be achieved in the early years of the Republic because of the above statement
• There were no schools or teachers in 35 thousand of 40 thousand villages, according to the statement of the Minister of National Education in 1936
• Primary education lasted only three years, in some of the villages with schools
• Important regulations were also made in secondary education during the Republic period
• Secondary education was divided into two separate periods consisting of three years middle school (orta okul) and high school, each consisting of six years
• 1926- secondary education was introduced in the academic year in 1927 -co
• The secondary education was seen as a place where vocational information should also be given when middle schools were considered as institutions that prepared students for high schools and high schools for higher education
• Changes were made in secondary school curriculum and new books were written and Arabic and Persian courses were removed and courses were emphasis given to courses such as history, Turkish, geography and literature and Sociology
• Sociology was taught for the first time in high schools

Activities in the Field of Vocational and Technical Education

• various educational institutions and opened various educational institutions in the field of vocational and technical education in the Ottoman Empire
• The number of schools with this type of were quite low by the time of the republic
• importance given to vocational and technical education for the development of the country
• benefit from their knowledge and experience in this field and foreign experts
• Alfred Kühne conducted studies in schools in Anatolia and presented a report on the views and suggestions for the development of technical education when he came to Turkey in 1925
• Practical, useful information be conveyed to students in schools, that apprenticeship training be provided in schools affiliated with various institutions such as railways, and that women receive vocational training such as child care and sewing was recommend by Kühne
• Omar Buyse invited to turkey and prepared a report on vocational and technical education schools providing vocational and technical education were lagging behind the developing industry and that the courses required by the industry were not being taught
• It was recommended that programs in these schools vocational and education was prepared and taught according to the needs of the industry and that master instructors also teach the courses to teachers
• Ömer Buyse's report called for İsmet Paşa Girls' Institute opened in Ankara in 1928 for vocational education

Activities in the Field of Higher Education - From Darülfünun to Istanbul University

• The Law School was one of the first Higher Education institutions of the Republic period that opened Ankara in 1925
• separate from separate from as a school to positive science Darülfünun madrasahs closed after the tevhid-i tedrisat
• Darülfünun was criticized for its in develop and being of making
• Professor Alber Malche: invited in 1931 with conducts Darülfünun
• Istanbul Darülfünu report: - the scientific competence administrative structure the library laboratories
• Kemal: restructured modern university
• autonomy abolished
• 59 out of 151 were selected to and to The new educational foreign
• The School of Law and the Ankara Ankara and Faculty
• These with and for for was established