Immune system
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following conditions is characterized by severe impairment in both B and T cell function?

  • Isolated T-Helper Dysfunction (ITHG)
  • Bruton’s Disease
  • Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) (correct)
  • Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID)

What is a common characteristic of Hyper-IgM Syndrome?

  • Low levels of all immunoglobulins
  • Increased levels of IgA and IgG
  • Defective antibody switching (correct)
  • Excessive maturation of B-cells

What type of immunodeficiency is classified as Secondary (Acquired)?

  • Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) Deficiency
  • Bruton’s Disease
  • Diabetes (correct)
  • MHC Class II Deficiency

Which of the following conditions is specifically associated with toxic metabolite buildup affecting lymphocytes?

<p>Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) Deficiency (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which immunodeficiency disorder is T-helper cell maturation or function delayed?

<p>Isolated T-Helper Dysfunction (ITHG) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of chemotherapy and radiation on the immune system?

<p>Suppression of bone marrow activity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which congenital immunodeficiency disorder is caused by mutations in the BTK gene?

<p>Bruton’s Disease (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does malnutrition play in secondary immunodeficiency disorders?

<p>Results in deficiencies of essential nutrients (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of uncontrolled HIV infection?

<p>Progression to a life-threatening condition known as AIDS (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of Multiple Myeloma?

<p>Defective antibody production (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of cognitive disorder often results from depression and can mimic dementia?

<p>Pseudodementia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the immune response to non-self molecules?

<p>They trigger an immune response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following diseases is characterized by progressive neurodegeneration specifically affecting motor neurons?

<p>Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment is primarily aimed at suppressing viral replication in HIV patients?

<p>Antiretroviral Therapy (ART) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of cognitive disorders, which type of dementia is potentially reversible if identified early?

<p>Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus (NPH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which environmental factor is associated with the onset of degenerative diseases?

<p>Exposure to toxins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following types of cognitive disorders involves a severe decline due to a medical condition?

<p>Delirium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of Parkinson's Disease?

<p>Tremors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which risk factor is considered the primary contributor to degenerative diseases?

<p>Aging (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which autoimmune disease is characterized by joint inflammation and deformity?

<p>Rheumatoid Arthritis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of treatment focuses on improving symptoms and functionality in degenerative diseases?

<p>Symptom management (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cognitive disorder involves memory loss due to abnormal protein deposits?

<p>Alzheimer's Disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the complement fixation test (CFT) in terms of its mechanism?

<p>It relies on the consumption of complement proteins. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about antigen-antibody specificity is correct?

<p>The binding of antibodies to antigens follows a lock-and-key mechanism. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the acute-phase response, which of the following is NOT typically observed?

<p>Decreased white blood cell count. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of C-reactive protein (CRP) in the immune system?

<p>To assist in pathogen removal and tissue repair. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When evaluating the effects of chronic inflammation, which of the following is a likely consequence?

<p>Tissue damage resulting in fibrosis and scarring. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the difference between innate and adaptive immunity?

<p>Innate immunity serves as the first line of defense, while adaptive immunity is specific. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines flocculation reactions in the context of antigen-antibody interactions?

<p>Clumping of particles involving particulate antigens. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best represents a characteristic of neutralization reactions?

<p>Binding of antibodies to toxins or viruses at their active sites. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When considering degenerative changes due to chronic inflammation, what is commonly observed?

<p>Progressive decline in structure and function. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do memory cells play in adaptive immunity?

<p>They provide long-term immunity by recognizing previously encountered antigens. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In agglutination reactions, which of the following is NOT a type?

<p>Constructive agglutination. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of antibodies in the immune response?

<p>To bind to antigens and facilitate their removal from the body. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cells are primarily responsible for the phagocytosis process during the innate immune response?

<p>Neutrophils (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of macrophages in the immune system?

<p>Engulf pathogens and present antigens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of T cell is directly involved in killing infected and cancerous cells?

<p>Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8+) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary signs of acute inflammation?

<p>Pain, redness, swelling, heat (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process is primarily responsible for creating memory cells in the adaptive immune response?

<p>Initial exposure to pathogens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of opsonization in the immune response?

<p>Marking pathogens for phagocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which autoimmune disease primarily results from an immune attack on moisture-producing glands?

<p>Sjogren's Syndrome (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of immunity is described as genetic resistance to certain diseases?

<p>Inborn Immunity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Western Blotting technique primarily confirm?

<p>HIV infection after a positive ELISA test (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the complement system in the immune response?

<p>Mark pathogens for destruction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism of autoimmune disease development involves failure to eliminate self-reactive immune cells?

<p>Clonal deletion failure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following codes correctly represents the primary difference between acute and chronic inflammation?

<p>Acute inflammation has a rapid onset; chronic inflammation has a prolonged duration. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of natural killer (NK) cells?

<p>Kill virus-infected and cancerous cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is associated with Type IV hypersensitivity?

<p>Type 1 Diabetes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary autoimmune response detected in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus?

<p>Anti-dsDNA antibodies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key feature distinguishes humoral immunity from cell-mediated immunity?

<p>Utilization of antibodies produced by B cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of DMARDs in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis?

<p>To prevent permanent joint damage and slow disease progression (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which laboratory test is primarily utilized to detect systemic inflammation?

<p>Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of cytokines during the inflammatory response?

<p>They facilitate the migration of neutrophils to the site of injury (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of chronic inflammation?

<p>Persistent pathogens or autoimmunity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is NOT typically associated with acute inflammation?

<p>Long-lasting symptoms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which autoimmune disease is characterized by the destruction of myelin sheaths around neurons?

<p>Multiple Sclerosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immune response is characterized by its specificity and ability to create memory cells?

<p>Adaptive Immune Response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the immune system response, what is the significance of T cells?

<p>They are responsible for memory and long-term immune responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the release of histamines during an inflammatory response?

<p>Tissue damage or infection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of autoimmune diseases, what role do environmental factors play?

<p>They can trigger autoimmunity through infections or drugs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which tissue is primarily responsible for the maturation of T cells?

<p>Thymus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which antibody test is specific for diagnosing autoimmune diseases such as SLE?

<p>Anti-Smith Antibodies (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of plasmapheresis in autoimmune conditions?

<p>To remove harmful antibodies and immune complexes from circulation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of the complement activation mechanism in the immune response?

<p>Cell lysis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can trigger chronic inflammation to develop?

<p>Repeated exposure to irritants or persistent infections (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes the chronic inflammation seen in Rheumatoid Arthritis?

<p>Autoantibodies attacking the joints (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of immune dysfunction is characterized by an exaggerated response to harmless substances?

<p>Hypersensitivity reaction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential complication of chronic inflammation?

<p>Tissue destruction and fibrosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of autoimmune disease primarily affects multiple organ systems?

<p>Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes is primarily involved in the vascular stage of inflammation?

<p>Vasodilation and increased permeability (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these diseases is categorized as a neurodegenerative disease?

<p>Alzheimer's disease (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of acute-phase proteins during infection?

<p>To stimulate the immune response (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immune response component is responsible for producing antibodies?

<p>B cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of inflammation is typically associated with short duration and swift recovery?

<p>Acute inflammation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is immunodeficiency?

A state where the immune system is weakened or absent, making the body vulnerable to infections and potentially cancer.

Primary immunodeficiency

A type of immunodeficiency caused by inherited or genetic factors present at birth.

Secondary immunodeficiency

An acquired immunodeficiency caused by external factors like infections or toxins.

Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID)

A severe primary immunodeficiency affecting both B and T cells, causing extreme vulnerability to infections.

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Bruton's Disease

A primary immunodeficiency caused by a mutation in the BTK gene, leading to a lack of antibodies due to failed B cell maturation.

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AIDS

An acquired immunodeficiency syndrome caused by HIV infection, which depletes CD4+ T cells.

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What are some causes of secondary immunodeficiencies?

Factors such as severe burns, chemotherapy, radiation, diabetes, and malnutrition can all weaken the immune system.

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How does diabetes affect the immune system?

High glucose levels in diabetes can impair the function of white blood cells, making them less effective at fighting infections.

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Degenerative Disorders

Conditions characterized by progressive deterioration of tissues, organs, or body systems, leading to disability, morbidity, and premature mortality.

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Cognitive Disorders

Disorders affecting the brain's ability to process information, memory, and learning.

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Nerve Degenerative Diseases

Diseases involving the nervous system, leading to progressive loss of motor and cognitive function.

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Systemic Degenerative Diseases

Diseases affecting multiple body systems.

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Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI)

A mild decline in memory and thinking skills not due to normal aging.

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Delirium

Acute mental confusion, often due to an underlying medical condition.

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Pseudodementia

Cognitive impairment caused by severe depression, often mistaken for true dementia.

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Alzheimer's Disease

Most common dementia; characterized by memory loss, language difficulties, and brain atrophy. Caused by abnormal protein deposits (amyloid plaques and tau tangles).

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Vascular Dementia

Caused by multiple strokes leading to brain damage.

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Frontotemporal Dementia

Involves behavior and personality changes due to frontal lobe degeneration.

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Parkinson's Disease

Movement disorder due to dopamine deficiency from the death of neurons in the substantia nigra. Symptoms include tremors, stiffness, and slow movement.

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Huntington's Disease

Genetic disorder causing physical and mental decline due to neuronal death in the brain. Symptoms include involuntary movements, mood swings, and cognitive decline.

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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)

Also known as Lou Gehrig's disease. Affects motor neurons, causing muscle weakness and paralysis.

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Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

Autoimmune disease causing demyelination of nerves. Symptoms include vision problems, muscle weakness, and coordination issues.

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Batten Disease

Genetic disorder causing lipid buildup in brain cells. Symptoms include seizures, vision loss, and motor deterioration.

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Lymphocytes

White blood cells responsible for specific immune responses, including B cells and T cells.

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Macrophages

Large, phagocytic cells that engulf pathogens and present antigens to T cells, acting as messengers for the immune system.

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Dendritic Cells

Specialized antigen-presenting cells found in tissues that initiate T cell responses by displaying antigens.

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Natural Killer (NK) Cells

Cells that destroy infected or cancerous cells without prior sensitization, acting as the immune system's rapid response force.

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Thymus

A gland located in the chest where T cells mature and develop their ability to recognize and attack specific antigens.

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Bone Marrow

The spongy tissue inside bones that produces all blood cells, including the immune cells.

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Spleen

An organ that filters blood, removes pathogens and damaged cells, and serves as a reservoir for immune cells.

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Lymph Nodes

Small, bean-shaped organs that filter lymph fluid and initiate immune responses by trapping pathogens and activating immune cells.

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GALT

Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue, a specialized immune system in the digestive tract, including Peyer's patches, tonsils, and appendix.

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MALT

Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue, found in the respiratory and reproductive tracts, defending against pathogens entering through these pathways.

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SALT

Skin-Associated Lymphoid Tissue, found beneath the skin's surface, which is the body's largest barrier to infection.

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First Line of Defense

The body's initial barrier against pathogens, consisting of physical and chemical barriers that prevent entry, such as skin, mucous membranes, and antimicrobial substances.

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Second Line of Defense

The innate immune response, a non-specific and immediate reaction that targets all pathogens, involving phagocytosis, the complement system, and inflammation.

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Third Line of Defense

The adaptive immune response, a specific and long-lasting immune response that targets individual pathogens and creates memory cells.

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Phagocytosis

The process by which immune cells engulf and destroy pathogens, effectively consuming and eliminating them.

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Complement System

A series of proteins that work together to mark pathogens for destruction, stimulate inflammation, and lyse microbial membranes.

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Inflammation

The body's localized response to injury or infection, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, pain, and loss of function, aimed at clearing the harmful stimulus.

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Immunofluorescence Assay (IFA)

A technique using fluorescent-labeled antibodies to detect antigens or antibodies in a sample when viewed under a fluorescence microscope.

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Western Blotting

A laboratory technique that separates proteins by gel electrophoresis, transfers them to a membrane, and detects them using labeled antibodies.

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Complement Activation

Triggers the complement cascade, leading to cell lysis.

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Opsonization

Marks pathogens for phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils.

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Neutralization

Blocks active sites on toxins or viral proteins.

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Agglutination

Causes pathogens to clump, enhancing removal.

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Precipitation

Makes soluble antigens insoluble for easier clearance.

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Autoimmunity

A malfunction of the immune system where the body attacks its own tissues.

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Autoantigen

A normal protein or complex recognized by the immune system as foreign in autoimmune diseases.

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Autoantibody

An antibody produced against the body's own antigens.

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Self-Tolerance

The immune system's ability to recognize its own cells and avoid attacking them.

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Systemic Autoimmune Diseases

Diseases affecting multiple organs and systems.

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Organ-Specific Autoimmune Diseases

Diseases targeting specific organs or tissues.

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Clonal Deletion Failure

Self-reactive T and B cells are not eliminated during immune cell development.

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Molecular Mimicry

Pathogens with similar antigens trigger cross-reactive immune responses.

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What is inflammation?

A complex biological response to injury or infection, characterized by redness, swelling, heat, and pain.

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What is vasodilation?

The widening of blood vessels, allowing more blood to flow to the inflamed area, causing redness and heat.

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What is increased vascular permeability?

Leakiness of blood vessels, allowing plasma proteins and immune cells to enter the tissues, causing swelling.

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What are leukocytes?

White blood cells, like neutrophils and monocytes, that fight infections by engulfing pathogens and damaged tissue.

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What is phagocytosis?

The process by which leukocytes engulf and digest pathogens or cellular debris.

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What is the acute-phase response?

The body's immediate response to infection or injury, involving fever, increased white blood cell count, and production of acute-phase proteins.

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What is fever?

Elevated body temperature that helps fight infection by inhibiting pathogen growth.

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What are acute-phase proteins?

Proteins like C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, and serum amyloid A, produced during the acute-phase response, which help remove pathogens and repair tissues.

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What is chronic inflammation?

Prolonged inflammation that can lead to tissue damage, fibrosis, and development of diseases.

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What are degenerative changes?

Progressive deterioration of tissue structure and function, often due to aging, injury, or inflammation.

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What is atherosclerosis?

Build-up of plaque in arteries, leading to narrowing and hardening, increasing risk of heart disease.

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What is Alzheimer's Disease?

A neurodegenerative disease causing progressive memory loss and cognitive decline.

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What is Parkinson's Disease?

A neurodegenerative disease affecting motor control due to dopamine deficiency, causing tremor and rigidity.

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What is rheumatoid arthritis?

A chronic autoimmune disease that causes joint inflammation and pain.

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What is multiple sclerosis?

An autoimmune disease that damages the nervous system, causing impaired nerve impulses and muscle weakness.

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What is diabetes mellitus?

A metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar due to insulin deficiency or resistance.

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What is innate immunity?

Non-specific, immediate defense mechanisms, including physical barriers, phagocytosis, and inflammation.

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What is adaptive immunity?

Specific, acquired immune response involving antibodies and T cells, providing long-term immunity.

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Neuro-Immuno-Endocrinological Axis

The interconnected system of the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems responsible for maintaining the body's internal balance (homeostasis).

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What are exogenous causes of inflammation?

External factors like mechanical injury, physical agents (heat, cold, radiation), chemical agents (toxins, irritants), and biological agents (pathogens).

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What are endogenous causes of inflammation?

Internal factors originating from within the body, such as circulatory disorders, protease release, and immune complex formation.

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Acute Inflammation

A rapid, short-term inflammatory response lasting from minutes to weeks, often caused by physical injury or infection.

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Chronic Inflammation

A slow, long-term inflammatory response lasting months or years, often caused by persistent infections or autoimmune diseases.

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What are the signs of inflammation?

Pain, redness, swelling, heat, and loss of function - collectively known as the five cardinal signs.

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Vascular Stage of Inflammation

The initial stage where blood vessels dilate to increase blood flow and their permeability increases to allow immune cells out.

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Cellular Stage of Inflammation

The later stage where white blood cells migrate to the affected area for phagocytosis (engulfing and destroying pathogens).

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Acute-Phase Response

The body's broader response to inflammation, including fever, increased white blood cell count, and production of acute-phase proteins.

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Degenerative Changes

The progressive decline in tissue and organ function due to aging, chronic injury, or persistent inflammation.

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What are some examples of degenerative diseases?

Cardiovascular diseases (hypertension, atherosclerosis), neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer's, Parkinson's), and metabolic disorders (diabetes, osteoporosis).

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Immune System

The body's defense against infections, toxins, and abnormal cells, involving recognition and attack of pathogens while avoiding self-targeting.

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Innate Immunity

The body's immediate, non-specific defense system, involving physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and inflammation.

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Adaptive Immunity

The body's specific defense system, involving B cells and T cells, that targets specific pathogens and creates memory cells.

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Study Notes

Primary and Secondary Immunodeficiency Disorders

  • Immunodeficiency is a state where the immune system's ability to fight infections is compromised. It can also affect cancer immunosurveillance.
  • Primary (Congenital) immunodeficiencies are inherited genetic defects present at birth.
  • Secondary (Acquired) immunodeficiencies arise from external factors (infections, toxins) that affect the immune system.

Primary Immunodeficiency Disorders

  • Combined Immunodeficiencies (affecting both B and T cells):
    • Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID): A group of disorders with severely impaired B and T cell function, leading to extreme vulnerability to infections.
    • Hyper-IgM Syndrome: Defective antibody switching causes high IgM levels and low levels of other immunoglobulins.
    • Purine Nucleoside Phosphorylase (PNP) Deficiency: Toxic metabolite buildup affects lymphocytes, causing immune dysfunction.
    • MHC Class II Deficiency: Rare and severe immunodeficiency resulting from defective antigen presentation due to a lack of MHC class II molecules
  • B-Cell Disorders:
    • Bruton's Disease (X-linked Agammaglobulinemia): Mutations in the BTK gene prevent B-cell maturation and antibody production.
    • Common Variable Immunodeficiency (CVID): Heterogeneous condition with reduced antibody production due to defective T-cell signaling.
    • Isolated T-Helper Dysfunction (ITHG): Delayed or reduced function of T-helper cells affects antibody production.

Secondary Immunodeficiency Disorders

  • Causes of Secondary Immunodeficiencies:
    • Severe burns: Damages the skin barrier, increasing infection risk.
    • Chemotherapy and radiation: Suppress bone marrow, reducing immune cell production.
    • Diabetes: High glucose levels impair white blood cell function.
    • Malnutrition: Deficiencies in essential nutrients needed for immune function.
  • Examples:
    • AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome): HIV infection depletes CD4+ T cells.
    • Cancers of the immune system (e.g., leukemia): Malignant growths affect immune cell development.
    • Immune complex diseases (e.g., viral hepatitis): Chronic inflammation from persistent immune complex formation.
    • Multiple myeloma: Cancer of plasma cells leading to defective antibody production.

HIV Overview

  • HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): Damages the immune system by killing CD4+ T cells.
  • Untreated HIV leads to AIDS, a life-threatening condition with severe immune suppression and increased susceptibility to infections.
  • Modes of Transmission: Blood, semen, vaginal/rectal fluids, and breast milk.
  • Prevention and Treatment:
    • Antiretroviral Therapy (ART): Suppresses viral replication and improves immune function, increasing life expectancy.

Degenerative Disorders

  • Degenerative disorders involve the progressive deterioration of tissues, organs, or systems, leading to disability, morbidity, and premature mortality.

Categories of Degenerative Disorders

  • Cognitive Disorders: Affect brain information processing, memory, and learning.
  • Nerve Degenerative Diseases: Involve the nervous system, causing progressive loss of motor and cognitive function.
  • Systemic Degenerative Diseases: Affect multiple body systems.

Cognitive Disorders

  • Key Characteristics: Loss of memory and learning abilities; can be temporary (reversible) or permanent (irreversible).
  • Types:
    • Non-Dementia Cognitive Disorders: Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI), Delirium, Pseudodementia
    • Dementia:
      • Reversible Dementias: Normal Pressure Hydrocephalus (NPH), Vitamin B12 Deficiency
      • Irreversible Dementias: Alzheimer's Disease, Vascular Dementia, Frontotemporal Dementia, Parkinson's Dementia, Diffuse Lewy Body Disease.

Nerve Degenerative Diseases

  • Alzheimer’s Disease: Progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss and cognitive impairment, linked to brain shrinkage and abnormal protein deposits (amyloid plaques and tau tangles).
  • Parkinson’s Disease: Movement disorder due to dopamine deficiency from neuronal death in the substantia nigra. Symptoms: tremors, stiffness, and bradykinesia (slow movement).
  • Huntington’s Disease: Genetic disorder causing physical and mental decline due to neuronal death in the brain. Symptoms: involuntary movements, mood swings, and cognitive decline.
  • Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Also known as Lou Gehrig's disease, affects motor neurons, causing muscle weakness and paralysis.
  • Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Autoimmune disease causing demyelination of nerves. Symptoms: vision problems, muscle weakness, and coordination issues.
  • Batten Disease: Genetic disorder causing lipid buildup in brain cells. Symptoms: seizures, vision loss, and motor deterioration.

Systemic Degenerative Diseases

  • Cardiovascular Disorders: Hypertension (high blood pressure) and Coronary Artery Disease (CAD).
  • Neoplastic Disorders: Tumors and cancers.
  • Other Systemic Conditions: Diabetes Mellitus, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Osteoporosis

Risk Factors for Degenerative Diseases

  • Aging
  • Genetic factors
  • Environmental factors (toxins, injuries)
  • Oxidative stress
  • Lifestyle factors (diet, exercise, smoking, alcohol)

Treatment Approaches for Degenerative Disorders

  • Symptom management (e.g., medications like cholinesterase inhibitors for dementia)
  • Supportive care (e.g., physical, occupational, speech therapy)
  • Surgery (e.g., deep brain stimulation, shunt placement)
  • Lifestyle changes (e.g., exercise, improved diet, mental stimulation)

Immune System Handout

  • The immune system defends the body against pathogens, malfunctioning cells, and foreign materials.
  • Basic Principles of Immunity:
    • Self vs. Non-Self Recognition: Immune system generally ignores "self" molecules and responds to "non-self" molecules (antigens).
    • Autoimmunity: Immune system mistakenly attacks the body's own tissues.

Major Components of the Immune System

  • Cells: Lymphocytes (B cells, T cells), Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, Natural Killer (NK) Cells
  • Lymphatic Organs: Thymus, Bone Marrow, Spleen, Lymph Nodes
  • Immune Tissues: GALT, MALT, SALT

Lines of Defense in Immunity

  • First Line: Physical and chemical barriers (skin, mucus membranes, cilia, body fluids)
  • Second Line: Innate immune response (non-specific, immediate; phagocytosis, complement system, inflammatory response, NK cells)
  • Third Line: Adaptive immune response (specific, memory; humoral and cell-mediated immunity)

Humoral Immunity (Antibody-Mediated)

  • B Cells: Produced and mature in the bone marrow; recognize specific antigens with B Cell Receptors (BCRs).
  • Plasma Cells: Activated B cells producing antibodies (immunoglobulins).
  • Memory B Cells: Provide long-lasting immunity.
  • Antibody Functions: Neutralization, agglutination, precipitation, complement activation.

Cell-Mediated Immunity (T Cell-Mediated)

  • T Cells: Produced in bone marrow, mature in the thymus
  • T Cell Types: Helper T cells (CD4+), Cytotoxic T cells (CD8+), Memory T cells, Regulatory T cells (Tregs)

Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

  • Primary Response: Slow response to first antigen exposure; produces memory cells.
  • Secondary Response: Faster, stronger response to subsequent pathogen exposures due to memory cells.

Sources of Immunity

  • Inborn (innate) immunity
  • Acquired immunity (Natural Active, Natural Passive, Artificial Active, Artificial Passive)

Body Responses to Diseases (Detailed)

This section details detailed body responses to disease including inflammation, degenerative changes, and immune responses.

Antigen-Antibody Reactions

  • Antigen (Ag): Substance stimulating antibody production.
  • Antibody (Ab)/Immunoglobulin (Ig): Y-shaped protein binding to antigens.
  • Epitope: Specific antigen part recognized by antibodies.
  • Paratope: Antibody region binding to the epitope.
  • Properties: Specificity, Affinity, Avidity
  • Types of Reactions: Precipitation, Flocculation, Agglutination, Complement Fixation, Neutralization, ELISA, Immunofluorescence, Western Blotting.

Antibody Functions and Target Mechanisms

  • Complement activation, opsonization, neutralization, agglutination, precipitation

Autoimmune Diseases

  • Autoimmunity: Immune system attacking its own tissues.
  • Key Terms: Autoantigen, Autoantibody, Self-Tolerance
  • Types:
    • Systemic: Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA), Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), Scleroderma, Sjogren's Syndrome, Polymyositis/Dermatomyositis
    • Organ-Specific: Type 1 Diabetes, Hashimoto's Thyroiditis, Graves' Disease, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), Myasthenia Gravis, Celiac Disease, Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD), Autoimmune blood disorders.
  • Mechanisms: Breakdown of self-tolerance (clonal deletion failure, molecular mimicry, genetic susceptibility, environmental factors), autoimmune response pathways (type II, III, IV hypersensitivity).
  • Diagnosis: General (CBC, ESR, CRP), Specific autoantibody tests (ANA, RF, Anti-dsDNA), Organ-specific tests.
  • Treatment: Immunosuppressive drugs, plasmapheresis, hormone replacement, targeted therapies.

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