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Questions and Answers
What refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and behavior?
What refers to the process by which experiences change our nervous system and behavior?
- Learning (correct)
- Memory retrieval
- Memory engrams
- Neuronal plasticity
What is the cellular basis of long-term memory?
What is the cellular basis of long-term memory?
- Changes in neuronal excitability
- Neuronal plasticity (correct)
- No physical change in the brain
- Formation of new synapses
What do we refer to as memory traces or memory engrams?
What do we refer to as memory traces or memory engrams?
- Implicit memories
- Transient memories
- Memories (correct)
- Durable memories
What is known as accessing memories?
What is known as accessing memories?
What does neuronal plasticity refer to?
What does neuronal plasticity refer to?
What is the process by which neurons make new proteins and read new genes?
What is the process by which neurons make new proteins and read new genes?
What always waves in neural activity and becomes more complex with learning?
What always waves in neural activity and becomes more complex with learning?
What is typically used to measure neuronal plasticity?
What is typically used to measure neuronal plasticity?
What determines intrinsic excitability?
What determines intrinsic excitability?
What is referred to as synaptic plasticity?
What is referred to as synaptic plasticity?
What can synaptic plasticity involve?
What can synaptic plasticity involve?
What does habituation of Aplysia's gill withdrawal reflex involve?
What does habituation of Aplysia's gill withdrawal reflex involve?
What changes during habituation in Aplysia's sensory neuron excitability?
What changes during habituation in Aplysia's sensory neuron excitability?
What remains unchanged during habituation of Aplysia's gill withdrawal reflex?
What remains unchanged during habituation of Aplysia's gill withdrawal reflex?
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
What is long-term potentiation (LTP)?
What drives presynaptic modifications in long-term depression (LTD)?
What drives presynaptic modifications in long-term depression (LTD)?
What determines synaptic strength in relation to NMDA receptors?
What determines synaptic strength in relation to NMDA receptors?
What is the role of NMDA receptors in learning and memory?
What is the role of NMDA receptors in learning and memory?
When does the release of neurotransmitter need to coincide with for LTP to occur?
When does the release of neurotransmitter need to coincide with for LTP to occur?
What is the effect of persistent low-frequency stimulation on synaptic strength?
What is the effect of persistent low-frequency stimulation on synaptic strength?
What can drive presynaptic modifications in LTP?
What can drive presynaptic modifications in LTP?
What determines the current flow through the NMDA channel?
What determines the current flow through the NMDA channel?
What ions will enter a cell through NMDA receptors when they are bound to glutamate and Mg2+ is not blocking the pore?
What ions will enter a cell through NMDA receptors when they are bound to glutamate and Mg2+ is not blocking the pore?
What enzyme is activated by calcium influx through NMDA receptors and plays a role in establishing long-term potentiation?
What enzyme is activated by calcium influx through NMDA receptors and plays a role in establishing long-term potentiation?
What is the cellular basis of learning according to Donald Hebb's hypothesis?
What is the cellular basis of learning according to Donald Hebb's hypothesis?
What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) in synaptic plasticity?
What is the role of nitric oxide (NO) in synaptic plasticity?
What type of learning involves learning to recognize stimuli as distinct entities?
What type of learning involves learning to recognize stimuli as distinct entities?
Which type of learning involves learning to make skilled, choreographed movements?
Which type of learning involves learning to make skilled, choreographed movements?
What is the hypothesis proposed by Donald Hebb regarding the cellular basis of learning?
What is the hypothesis proposed by Donald Hebb regarding the cellular basis of learning?
What is the main glutamate receptor that mediates most excitatory fast synaptic currents in the brain?
What is the main glutamate receptor that mediates most excitatory fast synaptic currents in the brain?
What is the process by which substances in the body and characteristics of the body are maintained at optimal levels to survive?
What is the process by which substances in the body and characteristics of the body are maintained at optimal levels to survive?
What is the term for the level that a variable, such as food and water, must be above to maintain optimal levels?
What is the term for the level that a variable, such as food and water, must be above to maintain optimal levels?
What is the analogy used to describe the slow adjustment of the body's response to changes in variables like temperature?
What is the analogy used to describe the slow adjustment of the body's response to changes in variables like temperature?
What mechanism is mentioned as a way to avoid waste when slow to warm up in response to changes in variables?
What mechanism is mentioned as a way to avoid waste when slow to warm up in response to changes in variables?
What is the term used to describe the process by which the body maintains stable internal conditions necessary for survival?
What is the term used to describe the process by which the body maintains stable internal conditions necessary for survival?
What is the role of the set point in maintaining optimal levels of variables like food and water?
What is the role of the set point in maintaining optimal levels of variables like food and water?
Which hormone provides a negative feedback signal that decreases hunger and increases sensitivity to short-term satiety signals?
Which hormone provides a negative feedback signal that decreases hunger and increases sensitivity to short-term satiety signals?
What is the rare condition that results in obesity and intense hunger, and can be treated with leptin injections?
What is the rare condition that results in obesity and intense hunger, and can be treated with leptin injections?
What triggers a cascade of effects including insulin suppression, glucose production, slowed energy expenditure, and intense hunger?
What triggers a cascade of effects including insulin suppression, glucose production, slowed energy expenditure, and intense hunger?
What initiates emergency feeding circuits similar to those observed in response to low blood sugar?
What initiates emergency feeding circuits similar to those observed in response to low blood sugar?
What hormone regulates hunger and basal metabolic rate by acting on receptors in the brain's arcuate nucleus?
What hormone regulates hunger and basal metabolic rate by acting on receptors in the brain's arcuate nucleus?
What disrupts insulin signaling, causing high blood sugar and weight loss, leading to intense hunger due to insufficient body fat and leptin signaling?
What disrupts insulin signaling, causing high blood sugar and weight loss, leading to intense hunger due to insufficient body fat and leptin signaling?
Which neurons promote hunger and are inhibited by leptin?
Which neurons promote hunger and are inhibited by leptin?
What syndrome, caused by deletion of certain genes, leads to insatiable hunger and obesity-related health issues?
What syndrome, caused by deletion of certain genes, leads to insatiable hunger and obesity-related health issues?
What contributes to about 50% of body fat variability?
What contributes to about 50% of body fat variability?
What is observed in rodents after consuming a high-fat, high-sugar diet?
What is observed in rodents after consuming a high-fat, high-sugar diet?
What aspect of hunger is regulated by specific neuropeptides in the medulla and hypothalamus?
What aspect of hunger is regulated by specific neuropeptides in the medulla and hypothalamus?
What do overweight individuals exhibit that leads to an actively defended elevated body fat level?
What do overweight individuals exhibit that leads to an actively defended elevated body fat level?
What is the role of insulin signaling in fat cells?
What is the role of insulin signaling in fat cells?
What is the primary function of ghrelin in the body?
What is the primary function of ghrelin in the body?
What happens when blood glucose levels decrease?
What happens when blood glucose levels decrease?
What is the function of CCK in the digestive system?
What is the function of CCK in the digestive system?
What is the immediate effect of short-term satiety signals released by the stomach and duodenum?
What is the immediate effect of short-term satiety signals released by the stomach and duodenum?
What is the primary function of GLP-1 in the body?
What is the primary function of GLP-1 in the body?
What is the mechanism that can control the regulated system variable in physiological regulatory processes?
What is the mechanism that can control the regulated system variable in physiological regulatory processes?
What is the process by which the effect of a correctional mechanism diminishes or terminates further corrective action?
What is the process by which the effect of a correctional mechanism diminishes or terminates further corrective action?
What refers to the relative concentration of dissolved solutes on either side of a membrane that is permeable to water?
What refers to the relative concentration of dissolved solutes on either side of a membrane that is permeable to water?
What type of solution has similar concentrations of solute on either side of the membrane, causing the cell to neither gain nor lose water?
What type of solution has similar concentrations of solute on either side of the membrane, causing the cell to neither gain nor lose water?
What causes cellular dehydration (water leaves the cell) and gives rise to osmometric thirst?
What causes cellular dehydration (water leaves the cell) and gives rise to osmometric thirst?
What occurs when there is not enough blood circulating in the body, leading to an intense thirst?
What occurs when there is not enough blood circulating in the body, leading to an intense thirst?
What triggers osmometric thirst?
What triggers osmometric thirst?
Where are osmoreceptors located?
Where are osmoreceptors located?
What is the main determinant of volumetric thirst?
What is the main determinant of volumetric thirst?
What triggers the feeling of thirst?
What triggers the feeling of thirst?
What region of the brain is activated when ingesting hypertonic saline?
What region of the brain is activated when ingesting hypertonic saline?
How is thirst monitored in the body?
How is thirst monitored in the body?
Which system regulates the internal environment of the body and stimulates glands and organs?
Which system regulates the internal environment of the body and stimulates glands and organs?
Which signaling system prepares the body for action, such as in response to a threat?
Which signaling system prepares the body for action, such as in response to a threat?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is associated with 'rest and digest' activities?
Which division of the autonomic nervous system is associated with 'rest and digest' activities?
Which nervous system transmits signals to the central nervous system from muscles, joints, and skin via nerves?
Which nervous system transmits signals to the central nervous system from muscles, joints, and skin via nerves?
Which nervous system regulates the body's internal environment and has opposing systems in terms of outcomes?
Which nervous system regulates the body's internal environment and has opposing systems in terms of outcomes?
Which system stimulates glands and organs, preparing the body for action and regulating the internal environment?
Which system stimulates glands and organs, preparing the body for action and regulating the internal environment?
What is the role of the corpus callosum?
What is the role of the corpus callosum?
What is the function of the brain stem?
What is the function of the brain stem?
What is the primary function of the hippocampus?
What is the primary function of the hippocampus?
What happens when neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic cell?
What happens when neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the post-synaptic cell?
What is the consequence of lacking the corpus callosum?
What is the consequence of lacking the corpus callosum?
What is the role of psychopharmacological drugs like SSRIs?
What is the role of psychopharmacological drugs like SSRIs?
What is the resting potential of a neuron?
What is the resting potential of a neuron?
What causes the axon of a neuron to fire an action potential?
What causes the axon of a neuron to fire an action potential?
What is responsible for the negative resting potential of the neuron?
What is responsible for the negative resting potential of the neuron?
What happens when depolarization reaches about +40 mV during an action potential?
What happens when depolarization reaches about +40 mV during an action potential?
What drives the movement of ions across the neuron membrane?
What drives the movement of ions across the neuron membrane?
What helps maintain the resting potential by actively transporting ions against their concentration gradients?
What helps maintain the resting potential by actively transporting ions against their concentration gradients?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the endocrine system?
Which cells are responsible for protecting CNS neurons and forming the myelin sheath around axons?
Which cells are responsible for protecting CNS neurons and forming the myelin sheath around axons?
What is the basic structure of a neuron specialized for communication?
What is the basic structure of a neuron specialized for communication?
How many basic types of neurons are there in the nervous system?
How many basic types of neurons are there in the nervous system?
What is the main component of the human central nervous system?
What is the main component of the human central nervous system?
What did Ramon y Cajal study using the silver staining method?
What did Ramon y Cajal study using the silver staining method?
What is the role of benzodiazepines in neurotransmission?
What is the role of benzodiazepines in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of the node of Ranvier in neuron physiology?
What is the primary function of the node of Ranvier in neuron physiology?
What is the mechanism of action of ketamine in neurotransmission?
What is the mechanism of action of ketamine in neurotransmission?
What is the main determinant of the velocity of action potential transmission in axons?
What is the main determinant of the velocity of action potential transmission in axons?
What is the function of autoreceptors in neurotransmission?
What is the function of autoreceptors in neurotransmission?
What is the impact of myelination on the speed of signal propagation in axons?
What is the impact of myelination on the speed of signal propagation in axons?
What is the primary factor influencing the velocity of action potential transmission in axons?
What is the primary factor influencing the velocity of action potential transmission in axons?
What is the primary mechanism responsible for the significantly faster signal propagation in myelinated axons compared to unmyelinated axons?
What is the primary mechanism responsible for the significantly faster signal propagation in myelinated axons compared to unmyelinated axons?
What is the role of larger axon diameters in relation to ion flow resistance?
What is the role of larger axon diameters in relation to ion flow resistance?
Which structures are basic components of neurons?
Which structures are basic components of neurons?
What determines whether neurotransmitter binding has inhibitory or excitatory effects?
What determines whether neurotransmitter binding has inhibitory or excitatory effects?
What is the primary mechanism involved in the modulation of neurotransmission by agonists and antagonists?
What is the primary mechanism involved in the modulation of neurotransmission by agonists and antagonists?
What are the essential components of the nervous system, supporting and contributing to the functions of neurons?
What are the essential components of the nervous system, supporting and contributing to the functions of neurons?
What did Ramon y Cajal use to make significant discoveries about the structures of neurons?
What did Ramon y Cajal use to make significant discoveries about the structures of neurons?
What is the primary control center for the endocrine system?
What is the primary control center for the endocrine system?
What axis is activated in response to perceived stress, leading to the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland?
What axis is activated in response to perceived stress, leading to the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland?
What is the basic structure of a neuron specialized for communication?
What is the basic structure of a neuron specialized for communication?
How many basic types of neurons are there, each serving different functions within the nervous system?
How many basic types of neurons are there, each serving different functions within the nervous system?
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Study Notes
Synaptic Plasticity and Neuronal Function
- Neurons can still have action potential if a part of the dendritic spine cell is cut, surviving and maintaining essential functions.
- Neurons can adapt and evolve through experiences, with synapses becoming stronger or weaker based on these experiences.
- Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-term increase in the strength of the connection between two neurons, often induced by high-frequency stimulation.
- LTP is often initiated on the postsynaptic side, but retrograde signaling of nitric oxide can drive presynaptic modifications.
- Long-term depression (LTD) is a long-term decrease in the strength of the connection between two neurons, often induced by persistent low-frequency stimulation.
- LTD is often initiated on the postsynaptic side, but retrograde endocannabinoid signaling can drive presynaptic modifications.
- Both LTP and LTD are a function of the number of times the synapse was activated as well as whether the postsynaptic neuron fired at those precise times.
- The release of neurotransmitter must coincide with a substantial depolarization of the postsynaptic cell for LTP to occur.
- NMDA receptors play a significant role in learning and memory, as they are located in almost every glutamatergic synapse in the brain and act as coincidence detectors.
- The NMDA receptor is sensitive to the presence of glutamate and depolarization, with the amount of calcium influx determining synaptic strength.
- NMDA receptors are a key signal for synaptic strength, with the amount of calcium influx determining whether a synapse weakens or strengthens.
- NMDA receptors act as a coincidence detector, and their role in detecting depolarization and calcium influx determines whether a synapse weakens or strengthens.
Metabolism and Hunger Signals in the Body
- Cold sensors in the mouth and sensory fibers in the stomach are part of the rapid satiety feedback mechanism to shut down thirst
- The energy homeostasis system regulates hunger, and the body mostly consumes organic foods such as sugars, lipids, and amino acids
- Cells store glucose and lipids for energy, and the pancreas releases insulin when blood glucose levels are high
- Insulin signaling promotes the storage of fatty acids as triglycerides in fat cells, while glucagon signaling promotes the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids
- Cells outside the brain require insulin to use glucose, while brain cells can always take in sugar
- A decrease in blood glucose causes the pancreas to stop secreting insulin and start secreting glucagon, reserving glucose for the central nervous system
- Hunger signals come from the empty stomach, particularly from the release of a peptide called ghrelin
- Ghrelin increases hunger and food intake, and its levels increase with hunger and fall with satiation
- The presence or absence of food in the duodenum regulates the release of ghrelin from the stomach
- Short-term satiety signals released by the stomach and duodenum immediately after eating, before food has been digested, include CCK and GLP-1
- CCK causes the gallbladder to release digestive enzymes into the duodenum, while GLP-1 regulates insulin secretion and inhibits food intake
- These peptides are secreted in response to food intake and correlate with feelings of satiety
Physiological Regulatory Mechanisms for Hunger and Thirst
- Regulatory systems maintain system variables near a set point to prevent hunger and thirst from falling below critical levels
- Correctional mechanisms control the regulated system variables to keep them at optimal values
- Negative feedback keeps system variables near the set point, while positive feedback turns off correctional mechanisms
- Satiety mechanisms cause cessation of hunger or thirst when adequate supplies of food and water are available
- Anticipation of ingested food and water triggers satiety before cells have access to them
- Thirst is monitored through osmometric and volumetric detectors, related to water levels inside cells and in the circulatory system
- Body fluid compartments consist of 2/4 water inside cells and the rest outside cells, with salt affecting water distribution
- Osmometric thirst is triggered by changes in cell size due to tonicity, leading to water entering or leaving the cell
- Osmoreceptors detect changes in cell size and release neurotransmitters based on cell volume
- Volumetric thirst occurs when there is not enough blood circulating in the body, monitored by the kidneys and related to hypovolemia
- The feeling of thirst is related to the activation of hypothalamic neurons near the anteroventral tip of the third ventricle
- Ingestion of hypertonic saline activates neurons in the AV3V region and anterior cingulate cortex, leading to thirst and subsequent reduction in thirst-related activity when drinking water
The Endocrine System and Stress Response
- The endocrine system influences thoughts, behaviors, and actions and works alongside the nervous system to prepare the body to deal with perceived threats.
- The endocrine system primarily controlled by the hypothalamus, which signals to the pituitary gland located at the base of the hypothalamus.
- The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland (HPA) axis is activated in response to perceived stress, leading to the release of cortisol from the adrenal gland.
- The human central nervous system consists of the spinal cord and brain, with neurons as its basic component.
- Ramon y Cajal, a neuroanatomist, made significant discoveries about the structures of neurons using the silver staining method.
- Glial cells, including microglia, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes, are essential components of the nervous system, supporting and contributing to the functions of neurons.
- Microglia protect CNS neurons, while astrocytes link neurons to blood vessels and form part of the blood-brain barrier, and oligodendrocytes surround axons, forming the myelin sheath that insulates axons.
- Neurons are specialized for communication, with a basic structure consisting of nodes of Ranvier, vesicles with neurotransmitters, presynaptic terminals, and postsynaptic terminals.
- There are over 3300 types of brain cells in the human brain, and neurons can have different shapes depending on their function and location.
- There are three basic types of neurons: interneurons, motor neurons, and sensory neurons, each serving different functions within the nervous system.
- The flow of information in the neuron involves a signal being received at the dendritic spines, producing an electric current, and ultimately leading to the release of neurotransmitters.
- The concept of potential is crucial in understanding the resting potential and the action potential in neurons, similar to how energy is stored in an electrical system like a battery.
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