Substitution Reactions: Halogenation of Alkanes

A reaction where one step produces a species that starts another step, and so on, similar to a chain.

An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron, highly reactive.

A reaction where two or more molecules combine to form a bigger one, often across a double or triple bond.

Reaction of carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester, catalyzed by acid.

The chemical process of making soap from fats or oils and a base (like potassium hydroxide).

Process that adds hydrogen to vegetable oils to make them more saturated and solid.

Bond breaking where electrons are split between the forming ions.

A reaction type where a polar molecule adds across a double or triple bond, involving the formation of a cation and an anion and later creating a molecule

The reaction of ethene with bromine water results in the formation of 1,2-dibromoethane. This happens through an electrophilic addition reaction, where the bromine molecule adds across the double bond of ethene.

The process of joining many small molecules (monomers) together to form a long chain molecule called a polymer. This occurs through repeated addition reactions involving monomers.

The smallest part of a polymer that, when repeated, makes up the entire polymer chain. It's like the basic building block of the polymer.

A chemical reaction where a small molecule is removed from a larger molecule, resulting in the formation of a double bond in the larger molecule.

When a primary alcohol reacts with an oxidizing agent, it is converted into an aldehyde. This involves the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the alcohol.

When a secondary alcohol reacts with an oxidizing agent, it is converted into a ketone. This also involves the removal of two hydrogen atoms from the alcohol.

Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced back into alcohols by using hydrogen and a nickel catalyst. This is the reverse reaction of oxidation.

Ethanal (an aldehyde) is easily oxidized by strong oxidizing agents like potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or Fehling's solution. This results in the formation of a carboxylic acid.

A chemical test used to identify reducing sugars (like glucose) by reacting them with Fehling's solution. This solution contains copper ions that are reduced to a red precipitate of copper(I) oxide in the presence of reducing sugars.

A chemical test used to identify aldehydes by reacting them with Tollen's reagent. This reagent is a solution of silver ions that are reduced to metallic silver, forming a silver mirror on the test tube walls in the presence of an aldehyde.

A positive magnesium test, characterized by fizzing, indicates the presence of an acid. The fizzing is due to the reaction of magnesium with the acid, producing hydrogen gas.

When anhydrous sodium carbonate reacts with an acid, it produces carbon dioxide gas, which extinguishes a flame and turns limewater milky white, indicating the presence of an acid.

A synthetic polymer produced by polymerizing chloroethene (vinyl chloride). It's widely used in various applications like pipes, insulation, and window frames.

A technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions. This allows the identification and quantification of different molecules in a sample.

Mass spectrometry involves five sequential stages: vaporization, ionization, acceleration, separation, and detection. Each stage plays a critical role in analyzing the sample and generating data.

A graph that displays the relative abundance of ions with different mass-to-charge ratios.

The height of a peak represents the relative abundance of particles with that specific mass-to-charge ratio.

A separation technique that uses a stationary phase (paper) and a mobile phase (solvent) to separate components based on their solubility.

The immobile phase in chromatography, which interacts with the components of the mixture being separated.

The fluid phase in chromatography that carries the mixture through the stationary phase.

A separation technique that uses a gaseous mobile phase and a solid stationary phase, separating components based on their boiling points and interactions with the stationary phase.

The process of passing a solvent (eluent) through a column containing the stationary phase in chromatography.

A technique used in chemistry to heat a reaction mixture at its boiling point while preventing the loss of volatile reactants or solvents. It involves the continuous condensation and return of vapors to the reaction flask.

A technique used to separate components of a liquid mixture based on their different boiling points. The mixture is heated, and the component with the lowest boiling point vaporizes and is collected separately.

A saturated solution of salt (usually sodium chloride) in water. It is used in various chemical processes to precipitate out certain substances like soap from mixtures.

Washing the soap thoroughly with brine is essential to remove any remaining sodium hydroxide (lye), which is a strong base and can be irritating to skin.

During saponification, the reaction produces soap and glycerol (propane-1,2,3-triol). Glycerol is a viscous liquid often used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals.

The theoretical maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactants. It is based on the stoichiometry of the reaction, assuming complete conversion of the limiting reagent.

Soap molecules have a polar 'head' (carboxylate group) that is attracted to water (hydrophilic) and a non-polar 'tail' (hydrocarbon chain) that is attracted to oils and fats (hydrophobic). This structure allows soap to dissolve both oils and ionic salts, making it effective in cleaning.

A separation technique that uses a non-reactive gas (mobile phase) to carry a mixture through a coiled column packed with a coated silica gel (stationary phase). The components of the mixture separate based on their boiling points and interactions with the stationary phase.

Gas Chromatography is used to separate and analyze mixtures, with applications such as measuring alcohol levels in urine samples and drug testing in athletes.

A combination technique where the separated components from GC are then passed through a Mass Spectrometer to identify each component.

A separation technique that uses a liquid solvent (mobile phase) under high pressure to carry a mixture through a tightly packed column filled with coated silica gel (stationary phase).

HPLC is used for analyzing mixtures with applications such as testing for Growth Hormones in food and measuring the amount of Caffeine in drinks.

A technique that uses infrared radiation to identify organic compounds. Different types of bonds absorb different frequencies of IR radiation, creating a unique spectral fingerprint for each compound.

IR spectroscopy is used for identifying compounds, such as plastics, illegal drugs, and analyzing breathalyser results.

A technique that measures how a compound absorbs UV light of different wavelengths. This results in a unique spectral fingerprint for the compound and can also measure the concentration of the compound.