Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is a major negative impact of participant observation?
What is a major negative impact of participant observation?
What distinguishes contrived observation from other types?
What distinguishes contrived observation from other types?
Which method allows researchers to collect data without participants' knowledge?
Which method allows researchers to collect data without participants' knowledge?
What is reactivity in the context of observation?
What is reactivity in the context of observation?
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What is one ethical issue that researchers must consider in observation studies?
What is one ethical issue that researchers must consider in observation studies?
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What is one of the ethical concerns associated with the use of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)?
What is one of the ethical concerns associated with the use of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)?
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Which of the following limitations commonly affects case study research?
Which of the following limitations commonly affects case study research?
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What does psychobiography aim to achieve?
What does psychobiography aim to achieve?
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Which is a potential pitfall of using case studies according to the provided content?
Which is a potential pitfall of using case studies according to the provided content?
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One critique of using case studies is their inability to?
One critique of using case studies is their inability to?
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What is indicated by the presence of interactions among independent variables?
What is indicated by the presence of interactions among independent variables?
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What defines expericorr factorial designs?
What defines expericorr factorial designs?
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Why is using continuous participant variables like self-esteem in research potentially problematic?
Why is using continuous participant variables like self-esteem in research potentially problematic?
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What is a common consequence of using extreme groups procedure in participant selection?
What is a common consequence of using extreme groups procedure in participant selection?
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What primarily allows researchers to draw causal inferences?
What primarily allows researchers to draw causal inferences?
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Which of the following describes discrete participant variables?
Which of the following describes discrete participant variables?
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What is a potential disadvantage of using median-split methods?
What is a potential disadvantage of using median-split methods?
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How do multiple regression procedures improve research analysis?
How do multiple regression procedures improve research analysis?
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What measure indicates the total variability in behavior that is caused by predictable relationships to the variables being investigated?
What measure indicates the total variability in behavior that is caused by predictable relationships to the variables being investigated?
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Which of the following is considered when determining if the systematic variance is too large?
Which of the following is considered when determining if the systematic variance is too large?
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What type of measure involves direct observation of behavior?
What type of measure involves direct observation of behavior?
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How is effect size expressed in statistical terms?
How is effect size expressed in statistical terms?
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What is the main goal of observation in behavioral measurement?
What is the main goal of observation in behavioral measurement?
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Which measurement scale allows for ranking but does not provide information about the distance between rankings?
Which measurement scale allows for ranking but does not provide information about the distance between rankings?
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What is the role of meta-analysis in research?
What is the role of meta-analysis in research?
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What type of variance shows how factors not being studied affect the data collected?
What type of variance shows how factors not being studied affect the data collected?
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Which scale assigns numerical values merely as labels without mathematical operations significance?
Which scale assigns numerical values merely as labels without mathematical operations significance?
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What aspect does systematic variance highlight in research data?
What aspect does systematic variance highlight in research data?
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What is the purpose of grouping scores into frequency distributions?
What is the purpose of grouping scores into frequency distributions?
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Which of the following accurately describes cumulative relative frequencies?
Which of the following accurately describes cumulative relative frequencies?
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What are true limits of an interval?
What are true limits of an interval?
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When is a histogram most appropriately used?
When is a histogram most appropriately used?
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What characteristic does the median have concerning extreme values?
What characteristic does the median have concerning extreme values?
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What distinguishes a bar graph from a histogram?
What distinguishes a bar graph from a histogram?
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What does the mode represent in a data set?
What does the mode represent in a data set?
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Why are error bars important in presenting mean values?
Why are error bars important in presenting mean values?
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What is a trimmed mean used for?
What is a trimmed mean used for?
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Which measure of central tendency is least affected by extreme values?
Which measure of central tendency is least affected by extreme values?
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Study Notes
Variability
- Variance: The amount of variability between scores and the mean.
- Range: Difference between the largest and smallest score.
- Mean: The average around which numbers accumulate.
Variance
- Total variance is the sum of systematic and error variance.
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Systematic variance: Variability related predictably to variables being investigated.
- Refers to changes in behavior that are directly related to alterations in the variables.
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Error variance: Variability caused by factors not being studied by the researcher.
- Large error variance can make it difficult to determine if the variables of interest are actually linked to behavioral changes.
Effect Size
- Indicates the strength of a relationship between variables.
- The ratio of systematic variance to total variance.
- Ranges from 0.0 (no correlation) to 1.0 (perfect relationship).
Meta-Analysis
- Combines results from multiple studies to overcome limitations of individual research.
- Statistically combines effect sizes.
- Helps evaluate the strength of relationships and investigate potential influences on behavior.
Measurement Of Behavior
- Goal of observation: Categorizing thoughts, behaviors, and opinions.
- Measurement: Assigning numerical values to these categories for analysis.
- Exhaustive: Each observation needs to be assigned at least one value.
- Mutually exclusive: Each observation should only be assigned one value.
Types of Measures
- Observational measures: Direct observation of participant behaviors.
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Psychological measures: Studying the association between bodily processes and behavior.
- Utilizes specialised equipment to measure reactions not visible to the naked eye.
- Self-report: Information gathered from interviews, questionnaires, or responses regarding thoughts, feelings and behaviors.
Scales of Measurement
- Nominal scale: Numbers used as labels for attributes, with no mathematical operations possible.
- Ordinal scale: Participants are ranked, but distances between ranks may not be equal.
- Interval scale: Differences between numbers correspond to differences in the characteristics being measured.
Observing Behavior
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Participant observation: The researcher engages in activities alongside the subjects.
- Negatives: Potential for bias towards the group and altered behavior due to the observer's presence.
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Contrived observation: Observations take place in a controlled environment (e.g., lab experiments) or in naturally occurring situations but with a focus on specific behaviours (e.g., field experiments).
- Undisguised observation: Participants are aware they are being observed.
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Disguised observation: Participants are unaware of observation.
- Ethical considerations: Consent and privacy.
- Reactivity: Changes in behavior due to awareness of being observed.
- Partial concealment strategy: Inform participants that they are being observed but not the method or rationale.
- Recruiting knowledgeable informants: People close to the subjects observe and rate their behavior.
- Unobtrusive measures: Collecting data without participants' knowledge or intrusion.
Recording Data
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Grouped frequency distributions: Organizing scores into subsets (class intervals) for easier analysis.
- Intervals should be mutually exclusive, encompass all responses, and be of equal size.
- Relative frequency: The proportion of scores within each interval.
- Cumulative relative frequencies: Sum of proportions from all previous categories.
True Limits
- Real lower and upper limits: Include the smallest and largest values that would fall into the given interval.
- For example, the interval 35 - 39 includes values from 34.5 to 39.5.
Frequency Histograms And Polygons
- Histogram: Visual representation of grouped frequencies using bars, suitable for interval and ratio scales.
- Bar graph: Similar to histograms, but bars are separated to indicate that the variable on the x-axis (nominal or ordinal data) is not continuous.
- Polygon: Lines connect frequencies within class intervals.
Central Tendency
- Measures of central tendency summarize the data of a group.
- Key measures are:
- Mean: The average.
- Influenced by extreme scores, can be manipulated algebraically.
- Median: Less influenced by extreme scores.
- Mode: The most frequent score.
Presenting Means
- Visualizing means in graphs with error bars (representing the confidence level of the mean).
- Effect bars: Error bars are a visual representation of the confidence level of a mean, showing a range of values that would not be surprising, given the data.
Independent And Participant Variables
- Independent variables: Variables that researchers manipulate.
- Participant (subject) variables: Characteristics of participants (e.g., age, sex, personality traits).
- Expericorr factorial designs: When independent variables are manipulated and participant variables are measured.
- Discrete participant variables: Use groups based on these characteristics (e.g., gender, political affiliation).
- Median-split procedures: Dividing participants into groups based on their scores versus a median value.
- Extreme groups procedure: Selecting participants with unusually low or high scores.
- Multiple regression: Statistical technique that allows for analysis of data involving both manipulated and measured variables, providing a more comprehensive approach than median-split or extreme groups procedures.
Case Study Research
- In-depth investigation of an individual, group, or event.
- Provides narrative descriptions and explanations of the phenomenon.
- Used to explore rare phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.
- Potential for observer bias and difficulty in establishing generalizability.
Observer Biases
- Research relies on the observations of a single researcher, increasing the risk of biases and self-fulfilling prophecies.
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Description
Explore key concepts in variability including variance, range, and mean. Understand the significance of systematic and error variance, as well as effect size in research. This quiz covers essential statistical principles, including meta-analysis, to enhance your understanding of data interpretation.