Stages of Behaviorism

The Stages of Behaviorism

• From 1913-1930, Watsonian behaviorism was prominent.
• Neobehaviorism occurred between 1930-1960.
• The core of psychology during neobehaviorism involved learning, laws of conditioning, and operationism.
• Starting in 1960, sociobehaviorism emerged, marking a return to cognitive processes.

Logical Positivism

• Science was divided into Empirical/Observational and Theoretical terms.
• Logical positivism made it possible to theorize without compromising objectivity.

Operationism

• A concept can be defined by how procedures determine it based on the doctrine.
• Operational definitions stem from the above mentioned doctrine.
• The purpose is to make the terminology of science more objective and precise.
• A purpose is to rid science of pseudo-problems.
• The validity of a finding hinges on the validity of the operations used to achieve that finding as a basic principle.

Bridgman (1927) and "The Logic of Modern Physics"

• All physical concepts must be precisely defined.
• Any concepts lacking physical referents should be discarded.
• A concept is considered the same as the procedures used to determine it, length is one such example.
• Pseudo-problems arise in science when a concept cannot be measured and manipulated under controlled conditions.

Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959)

• Tolman, trained as a Titchenerian structuralist, also studied with Holt and Koffka.
• Tolman questioned the scientific utility of introspection.
• He became acquainted with Watsonian behaviorism.
• Tolman was an instructor at Northwestern University.
• In 1918, Tolman was hired by the University of California at Berkeley, where he taught comparative psychology and conducted research on learning in rats.
• Dissatisfied with Watson's behaviorism, Tolman formed his own version.
• During WWII, Tolman served in the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which later became the CIA.
• In the early 1950s, he was a leader of opposition to the state loyalty oath as a Berkeley faculty member.

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

• Tolman rejected introspection and had no interest in internal experiences.
• He defined Purposiveness in objective behavioral terms, asserting that all behavior is directed toward a goal.
• Tolman views learning as objective proof of purpose.

Purpose and Behaviorism

• Watsonian Behaviorists criticized the attribution of purpose to behavior.
• Tolman believed that the organism being conscious wasn't relevant, regardless of its effect on behavioral responses.
• The central focus was overt responses.

Tolman's Variables (S-O-R)

• S-O-R represents the Stimuli (causes), Organism (intervening variable), and Response (resultant behavior).
• Stimuli are the independent variables and initiating causes of behavior and they need to be observable and operationally defined.
• Intervening variables represents the internal states of the organism ex: cognition and emotion,.
• Resultant behaviors are determined by five causes and that relationship can be expressed in a mathematical formula.

Causes of Behavior

• Independent variables are causes of behavior
• Environmental stimuli
• Psychological drives
• Heredity
• Previous training
• Age

Intervening Variables

• Intervening variables represent the O in S-O-R and are the actual determinants of behavior.
• S-O-R connects stimulus with observed response, but it is not S-R.
• Responses are based on internal feelings/past behavioral learning of the organism.

Intervening Variable - Example - Hunger

• Hunger cannot be objectively observed.
• Hunger can be operationally defined if an animal has not eaten in 15 hours.
• Hunger is useful only if clearly related to both observable independent variable and observable behavior.
• Operational behaviorism relates to the above points.

Learning Theory

• Learning was central in Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and he rejected Thorndike's law of effect.
• Tolman proposed a cognitive explanation of learning stating that reward has little influence on learning.
• Repeated performance strengthens the relationship between environmental cues and the expectations of the organism, known as "sign gestalts".

Cognitive Map

• A cognitive map is a pattern of sign gestalts.
• Animals form a cognitive map instead of motor habits, differentiating place versus response learning.

Significance

• Tolman's work was a forerunner of the cognitive movement.
• His work with Intervening variables engendered scientific respect for operationally defining internal states.
• He was considered a forerunner of hypothetical constructs.

The Rat in Research

• In the 1930s-1960s, rats were the primary subject for neobehaviorists.
• There was an assumption that findings from rats could be generalized to other animals and humans.
• Rats were and are simple, easy to study, and readily available.

Spirit of Mechanism

• There was influence from the 17th century spirit of mechanism.
• The person as a self maintaining robot.
• Human behavior is automatic/capable of being reduced to physics with Hull as a proponent of artificial intelligence (AI).

Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952)

• Hull had faced challenges with his eyesight and ailments, but maintained research interests.
• Hull was interested in concept formation, the effects of Tobacco on behavioral efficiency, tests and measurements, and aptitude testing.
• Hull invented a machine that can carry out calculation correlations.
• From the 1940’s-60’s Hull had a major influence on American psychology.
• Hull used mathematical and formal logic knowledge when it comes to psychology.
• Principles of Behavior came out in 1943 by Hull and it was mathematically oriented psychology.
• Hull noted key methods that are useful for scientific research.
• He later developed the Hypothetico-Deductive Method and emphasized the hypothetical definitions of constructs.

Methodology and Quantification

• Objective, quantitative and mathematical techniques are used.
• The Hypothetico-deductive method uses deduction from a set of postulates and conclusions that are determined a priori (Hypotheses) and submits them to experimental test.

Hypothetico Deductive Model

• Scientific inquiry is used.
• The model uses expererience to look for previous explications, formulates hypotheses, and deduces predictions from said hypotheses.
• Conclusions are experimentally tested after results are examined.
• Further effects are empirically tested.
• The theory is wrong when a hypothesis is false.
• Testing continues when the hypothesis is proven true..
• Falsification is also emphasized.

Drives

• Motivation stems from bodily needs that arise from where bodily conditions are less than optimal.
• Drives are considered an intervening variable in motivation.
• A drive is a stimulus from a tissue need that rouses behavior.
• Reduction or satisfaction of a drive is the sole basis for reinforcement.
• The strength of drive is measurable through length of deprivation and strength of response.

Drives Continued

• Drives are non-specific for food, and sex drive.
• Drives energize behavior.
• Primary annd secondary drives are main kinds of drives.
• Primary drives are innate, and are biological needs vital to survival
• Secondary drives are learned from stimuli associated with the reduction of primary drives, therefore turning into drives themselves.

Learning

• Learning is a need-reduction process that relies on reinforcement.
• Learning is reinforced, occurs, and brings about a reduction of the drive.
• Law of primary reinforcement says when an S-R relationship is followed by a reduction in bodily need, then the related stimulus will produce the same response in the future.
• Secondary reinforcement stems from intensity, is used when a drive is lessened, and acts as a secondary reinforcement.
• The strength of a stimulus-response connection is a function of reinforcement to the persistence of conditioning and refers.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

• He graduated from Hamilton College with a degree in English.
• Skinner had a Ph.D. from Harvard University.
• His dissertation was on a reflex.
• One of the world's most influential psychologists for decades.
• Skinner contributions were in developing a program for behavioral control of the society.
• He promoted behavior modification techniques, was the creator of the Baby Tender, Project Pigeon, and author of the novel Walden Two.

Operant Conditioning

• This differs from respondent conditioning, where behavior occurs without an observable antecedent condition.
• Operant conditioning operates on the organism's environment.
• The "strength of an operant behavior is increased when it is followed by the presentation of a reinforcing stimulus."
• The concept of "Explanatory Fiction" should be avoided, because it adds no real explanatory value and fails to identify the real/observable cause of behavior.

Shaping Behavior

• Behavior should be controlled by the consequences for that bahaviour.
• To manipulate the consequences to increase or decrease the desired probability of a behavior from their patient.
• Consequences should be provided systematically for patients in successive steps that are meant to move these patients toward the responses.
• These steps should have successive approximation.
• There are 4 contingencies of shaping this behavio.

Shaping Behavior: Contingencies

• Positive reinforcement increases behavior by giving a positive consequence, like praise.
• Negative reinforcement increases behavior by removing something unpleasant, like nagging.
• Punishment (Positive Punishment) decreases behavior by giving a negative consequence.
• Extinction (Negative Punishment) decreases behavior by removing a positive consequence.

Skinner, Approximations and Modification

• Acquisition of complex behavior can me told through, successive approximations.
• The use of positive reinforcements is used for control in behavior modification.
• This reinforcement is used to modify behaviors for a wide variety of behaviors with behavioral modification from various hospitals.

Behavior Modification - Example

• An example of operant conditioning in the Big Bang Theory.

Accidental Discovery of Reinforcement Schedules

• While running low on food for his lab subjects, Skinner discovered schedules of reinforcement.
• Skinner, with limited food supplies, only reinforced certain behavior rather than all of them.
• Surprisingly, the animals did not stop with the food.
• This later was the accidental discovery leading to the most important one for Skinner and he found that the reinforce should not just be continuous.

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement

• Continuous reinforcement is rewarding for all behavior.
• Rewarding some behavior is for partial reinforcement.
• Schedules will be based on number and time.
• Ratio schedules will be based on the number of bahaviors
• Fixed ratio will gives reinforcements after fixed numbers of said behaviors.
• Interval schedules will be based and be done using time.
• Fixed intervals will give reinforcement after fixed period of time.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• There's direct correlation between schedules versus patterns of said schedules.
• If the lines appear steep, then that's a sign of higher results.
• Ratios have a strong affect and produces more results that the intervals.

Skinner Box

• The Skinner box includes a cumulative recorder.
• The Skinner box can perform Reinforcement Delivery.
• The Skinner box is applicable to the "Pigeon guidance" system.

Skinner Criticism Vs Contributions

• One criticism against Skinner is opposition to theory and extreme positivism.
• A key criticism if for being not as powerful as it was said.
• Skinner had main strengths and a contribution was rigor.
• One of his strengths was the idea of betterment for humans.

Albert Bandura

• Born to immigrant parents in a farming community in Canada.
• Ranked as 4th most eminent psychologist of the 20th century, behind Skinner, Piaget, and Freud in 2002.
• Bandura is known for the social learning and self-efficacy theories along with modeling aggression.

Social Learning Theory

• This theory stress thought process over reinforcement using beliefs and expectation.
• Vicarious reinforcement allows behavior without direct experience.
• Modeling is seen when another person models the same sex of someone who has solved something to them.

Modeling of Aggression and the Bobo Doll Study

• It was asked if aggression and behavior of social aspects can be learned through the study/imitation.
• Experiments performed on Children watching an adult interact with a Bobo doll
• One group with the adult hitting/yelling and 1/2 didn't have that.
• Children were more aggressive if they saw the adult attacking the Bobo doll.

Self-Efficacy

• Has to do with mastery and competences over life in general.
• Its about confidence from certain tasks with belies in coping.
• Experiencing direct, vicarious action or emotion and having verbal persuasion lead to more effects.

Radical vs. Methodological

• Radical behaviorists believe psychology should only study overt behaviors and environmental stimuli; Skinner and Watson adhere to that.
• Methodological behaviorists believe in cognitive processes too; Hull, Tolman, and Bandura adhere to that.

Behaviorism One View

• Behaviorism followed with psychologists like William James with limited methods.
• An orthodoxy lead to less created thought.
• By the 1990s, the cognitive approach dominated Psychology.

Behaviorism In Perspective

• Behaviorists help Psychology define being a science when it comes to behaviors and goals Skinner gave.
• An intention to make Psychology a natural science
• Concepts should be defined; operationism.
• Too Microscopic, ignored topics like senses, and over reliance on Rats leads to criticisms.

Behaviorism - Current Status

• Roediger thinks that behaviorism is less debated because it has won the intellectual battle.
• "behaviorism is less discussed and debated today because it actually won the intellectual battle"
• The message in these tenet have been accepted and behaviorism is still effective.
• Behavioral Analysis is still around with its modification is still standing by its works.