Spherical Geometry and Flight Planning Concepts

Integration of the lecture into the study program

• The covered content is a part VW-ATL-06, "Flight Planning and Aircraft Operations."
• The content represents 1 SWS (Semesterwochenstunde) with the overall module.
• The content is divided into four blocks.
• Lectures occur in person using lecture notes and materials.
• Materials will be supplied via OPAL
• Flight Planning builds on Meteorology of Aeronautics, Flight Performance, and Air Traffic Control.
• The lecture website is https://tu-dresden.de/bu/verkehr/ila/ifl/studium/lehrveranstaltungen/Flugplanung
• The exam is written, lasts 90 minutes, and covers Meterology of Aeronautics, you should bring compasses and a calculator.

Content of the lecture

• The course covers basics of flight planning, including great circle calculation, altitude profile, and minimum time track
• Air traffic control is on the curriculum.
• Also covered is the operational flight plan.
• This lecture will also examine mass and balance.

Learning objectives of the lecture

• Students will understand key steps in generating an airline's operational flight plan.
• Students will apply basic knowledge from flight performance/characteristics, ATM, and aviation meteorology.
• The course will involve short introductions and recaps for each task part, including the independent development of solutions.
• One component of flight planning is practiced per block
• Topics will be sorted by time, with the first block farthest from departure and the last just prior to departure.

Key Elements of Flight Planning

• Planning is affected by aircraft performance.
• Planning is affected by meteorology and weather forecasts.
• Planning is affected by NOTAMs, slots, and ATC flight plan.
• Planning is affected by the masses of fuel, payload (PAX, cargo, mail).
• Planning is affected by airline networks, including airports, ATS routes, distances, and traffic rights.
• Planning is affected by airline flight schedules, including STD/STA and changes like delays.
• Planning is affected by crewing and duty planning and duty times
• Planning is affected by ICAO Annex 6 and EU Air Ops regulation.
• Flight planning affects the flight, its flight crew, airlines, air traffic services and the ATM Network

Exercise 1: Basic Data & Remarks - Origin

• Origin airport is EDDF (Frankfurt Airport).
• EDDF coordinates are N 50° 01′59.90″, E 8° 34′ 13.64″.
• EDDF is 111 m AMSL.

Exercise 1: Basic Data & Remarks - Destination

• Destination airport is KJFK (John F. Kennedy Airport, New York).
• KJFK coordinates are N 40° 38′ 23.10″, W 73° 46′ 44.13″.
• KJFK is 4 m AMSL.

Exercise 1: Basic Data & Remarks - Alternate

• Alternate airport is KEWR (Newark Airport).
• KEWR coordinates are N 40° 41′ 33″, W 74° 10′ 7″.
• KEWR is 6 m AMSL.
• KEWR is 88 NM from KJFK.

Exercise 1: Basic Data & Remarks - General

• The assumed aircraft type is Boeing 747-400.
• Flight planning is performed by a dispatcher utilizing the airline's target functions.
• Flight planning begins up to six months prior to departure with the compilation of a seasonal schedule.
• Departure and destination airports are determined based on demand.
• Aircraft type is determined by demand and fleet rotation planning.
• An alternate airport must be determined and included in fuel planning.
• EDDF, KJFK and KEWR are ICAO codes for the unique identification of airports.

Exercise 1 - Alternate Aerodrome

• Alternate Aerodrome is an airport with landing facility if landing is not possible at the destination.
• Reasons for needing alternate can be bad weather, heavy traffic or unscheduled closure of the destination.
• Under good weather conditions at Destination (Visibility ≥ 5 km, Ceiling ≥ max (2 000 ft, Circling Height + 500 ft), Flight time ≤ 6h, Two separate runways, ETA + 1 h) only 1 Alternates is needed
• Under bad weather conditions at Destination (Planning minima or safety margins not met orNo information on weather available) 2 Alternates are needed

Flight route planning

• The Air Traffic System (ATS) and the operational flight plan are preceded by flight route planning.
• The goal is to find the path of least time (Minimum Time Track (MTT)).
• A Minimum Time Track is approximated by a short distance between two points on the Earth's surface which is called orthodrome or great circle.
• Actual routes may differ from a great circle due to wind.
• Long distances are rarely flown along the great circle because airspace is organized into navaids or waypoints.
• The ATC is able to allow shortcuts (directs) which skips navaids or waypoints.
• Flights, for example night flights over central Europe, in the Free Route Airspace take place along a great circle using intermediate points.
• Weather conditions sometimes prevent directs.
• Dispatchers therefore construct the Minimum Time Track and adapt it to the Navaid infrastructure.
• RNAV enables aircraft to operate along any chosen flight path using continuous position determination instead of ground navigation.

Exercise 1: Orthodrome (Great Circle)

• Orthodrome (Great Circle) is the shortest distance between two pints on the Earth's surface.
• Plane spanned by a great circle always intersects the center of the earth.
• The angle at point M between two points A and B lying on the surface of the Earth is called the central angle, Zeta.
• ζ = arccos[sin(φA) sin(φB) + cos(φa) cos(φB) · cos(λa – λB)].
• The orthodrome always results in the shortest path between two points but requires more navigation effort since a constant change in course is necessary.
• The loxodrome, on the other hand, is a curve that always intersects all meridians at the same angle.

Exercise 1: Orthodrome (additional points)

• Course Angle tan a = a/b = const (in loxodromes)
• eastern courses (λB > λA) the course angle is between 0° and 180°, for western courses (λB < λA)
• Loxodromes may be determined using the average latitude
• average latitude (φm) = 1/2(φA + φB).
• Shortest distance b= |φA – φB|
• α = |λA – λB|
• Linear distance d = √a² + b²
• Circles on the surface of the sphere that do not intersect the center of the sphere do not represent the shortest connection

Exercise 1: Basic Data & Remarks

• This will cover the expected traffic load of 30 t
• The remaining fuel will be 3.55 t
• Considers pre-planning and alternate planning.
• Average Fuel Flow (AVGE FF) is 8.7 t/h (all engines).
• Average Wind Component (AVGE WC) is –21 kt (Headwind).
• The first planning step establishes an approximate route including: cruise altitudes, fuel mass, and flight time.
• The ATM network (NMOC) will receive the mentioned information.
• Six months prior to departure, expected traffic loads and weather conditions must be roughly estimated.
• Average fuel flows and empirical values for wind direction and speed are often used for this purpose.

Exercise 1 - Checking operational capabilities of the aircraft

• Calculate the distance between EDDF – KJFK based on a great circle calculation!
• Construct the payload-range diagram and conform to the missions limits.

Exercise 1: Formulae to be used

• Central angle ζ (Zeta) between two points A (φA, λA) and B (φB, λB) on a great circle: ζ = arccos[sin(φA) · sin(φB) + cos(φA) · cos(φB) cos(λA – λB)]
• Great Circle Distance dG = ζ/360° *40.000 km
• φ = Degrees + Minutes/60 + Seconds/3600
• λ = Degrees + Minutes/60 + Seconds/3600

Exercise 1: Parameters B747-400

• MTOM: 394,6 t, DOM: 184,9 t
• MZFM: 246,1 t
• MLM: 285,8 t
• Max. Traffic Load: 61,2 t,
• MFC: 173,4 t

Exercise 1 - Payload-Range Diagram Chart

• Maximum Take-Off Mass (MTOM): 394.6 t
• Dry Operating Mass (DOM): 184.9 t
• Maximum Zero-Fuel Mass (MZFM): 246.1 t
• Maximum Landing Mass (MLM): 285.8 t
• Maximum Traffic Load: 61.2 t
• Expected Traffic Load: 30 t
• Maximum Fuel Capacity (MFC): 173.4 t
• Maximum Range with MTOM and maximum traffic load: 5,800 NM
• Maximum Range with MTOM and MFC: 7,200 NM.
• The Maximum Range of Ferry Flights: 8,200 NM

Mass Definitions

• Used by CAT an Part FCL aviation stakeholders in conjunction with range to compose the Payload-Range Diagram for commercial airplanes.
• Maximum Masses: Important in the context of Commission Regulation (EU) 748/2012, CS-25 (Certification of Large Aeroplanes) for aviation, as part of a legal limit.

Mass Definitions and airplane operation conditions.

• Actual Operating Masses: Important in the context of Commission Regulation (EU) 965/2012, Part-CAT (Air Operations) for air transport technology and logistics.
• In aviation, maximum masses correspond to airplane operating conditions (e. g. at ramp, during ground taxi, take-off, landing) and ensure structural integrity.
• Maximum masses examples include Maximum Zero Fuel Mass(MZFM),Maximum Take-Off Mass (MTOM), Maximum Landing Mass (MLM), Maximum Taxi Mass (MTM)/ Maximum Ramp Mass (MRM).

Maximum and actual masses

• MTM (Maximum Taxi Mass) for a B747-400 ER is 364.24 t, and for A319-100 it is 64.40 t
• MTOM (Maximum Take-Off Mass) for a B747-400 ER is 362.88 t, and for A319-100 it is 64.00 t
• MLM (Maximum Landing Mass) for a B747-400 ER is 265.36 t, and for A319-100 it is 61.00 t
• MZFM (Maximum Zero-Fuel Mass) for a B747-400 ER is 238.82 t, and for A319-100 it is 57.00 t
• DOM (Dry-Operating Mass) for a B747-400 ER is 174.91 t, and for A319-100 it is 39.37 t

Aspects Regarding Masses

• The mass before various aircraft elements is added - Crew, fuel, Passengers, Baggage / Cargo and equipment.
• Empty + Clean Aircraft + Any Unusable Fuel + Full quantity of Operating Liquids(oil / hydraulic fluids) + Safety Equipment (fire extinguishers) equals the Basic Empty Mass

###Variable Load

• Supports The Needs Of Particular Flight - Crew And Their Baggage, Catering, Food & Beverages, Potable Drinking Water
• The inclusion of Lavatory Chemicals & Specialized Equipment

Usable Mass

• Traffic Mass + Combined Mass of Passengers and Baggage = Traffic Load
• Usable Fuel
• Take Off fuel-Ramp Fuel = T/O Fuel + Taxi Fuel + Landing Fuel = T/O Fuel – Trip Fuel
• Mass relationships DOM + /0 Fuel/ Traffic Load > Operating Mass >Zero Fuel Mass > Takeoff Mass >Landing Mass "

Additional relationships between mass definitions

• Masses are dynamic for use of Payload-Range Diagrams such include Dry Operating Mass > Zero Fuel Mass > Takeoff Mass

Exercise 2

• Using the given pre-planning charts, estimates must be made on fuel, time and masses
• Values must be generated for Alternate Fuel, Landing and Take-off Mass, and Trip Fuel

Fuel and Energy Planning

• It is constituted by the influence the operation has on safety and efficiently. The factors in influence are important legal and structural/ performance limitations.
• Commission Regulations set the standards based on fuel and energy planning and considerations, as per "CAT.OP.MPA.180" (etc.)

Types of Fuel Scheme (Fuel Energy Planning

• Basic Basic Fuel Scheme Variations "3 % ERA Options", Decision Point Protocoland Isolation Aerodrome
• Individual > Requires fuel monitoring program and other important approved factors

Basic Fuel Scheme Components

• Is consist of mandatory features
• Taxi Fuel Trip & Contingency Alternate Final Reserve
• Additional, Extras, and Discretionary based features.
• The commander has great discretion on such additions.
• The sum of such features (both mandatory and discretionary) is to equal the total Block/Ramp Fuel.

###Fuel Types

• Taxi Fuel: Ground Movment at the departure aerodorome
• APU Fuel Use & Exclusion of fuels that are ground-based for destination

Trip Fuels

• Take off and climb to initial level
• Cruising (top of climb-descent phase)
• Descent (point to the point where approach is initiated) Apporach & Landing
• Contingency is the greater of two values >5 % of plan, or holding sped at five minutes with a 1500 feet offset with Destination Aerodrome.

Alternate Fuel

• Considers miss-approach & climb and other approach altitude regulations > The go -around procedure which included climbing and adjusting
• Crusing and top to the climb of descent + descent and final land at aerodrome all play a factor on fuel
• "when the flight if operated by two alternate aredromes + altnerate fuel is based on aerodrome that requies grater fuel!"

Final Reserve

• 30 minutes to fly
• Holding Speeds set at a 1500 offset of main Aero
• The commaner must ensure minimum level on the aircraft/ suitable and alternate fuel for the fuel for emergency or "MAYDAY"

Types of Extras

• if type of if the regular fuel *is sufficient type of operation or failure-then, additional required Constraints for - Delays & Specific Operational:
• The use of de and anti icing
• Consideraton of Specific Operational & The Commader desrction, such as to up a block ,or fuel tank increase

Block Fuel

• The sum of a given factors
• The calculation

• taxi
• Trip +Conticncy +alt +reserv +additonal
• exrra disctrectional "Total block/ Rampfuel for what that results equals to " +exrra/ extra disctrectional: +exrra""

Basic Fuel Scheme

• Take off with full , or "0 " as delay/ and not shorting
• 8563 kg is full with 90% or greater

###3%/ERA Option This is used when you make variations with enroutes alternatives" The conditions allow"

• 3% ERA Option” changes the previously discussed calculation of Contingency Fuel, allowing for less fuel to be carried" fuel and fuel reductions" the "1500 height/ 5 minitues above the destination"

Contingency fuel, there is a grater calculation of A or B" in such cases. "the statistical analysis - the statistical analysis / a continuous 2-year operation"

###3 % /ERA Opt

• B747 400, and fuel effeciency A>B Fuel / FlightTime / Maintence Effeciency Reduces"3% ERA Option / Contingency"

###3%ERA

• Determine inflight that what uses contingency than it should for Refuling".
• Must Use The Fuels Era " . Is located what have must to do refuell",
• The ERA can be nomitated to use the OFP

-Has helped with great consistency and implementations

• 90 > Percent success
• 18 % ERA Option / Fuel En route Alts

###RCF General Procedure

• On some flights, it was show-cased that this is "superfluous ATC cut or direct signals
• Tax / residual amounts
• Meteor Forecast, Absence in Delay " It is then that reduction will will take place
• The flight is conducted using no contingency fuel at all up to a so-called “Decision Point” (DP).""

"Reaching the DP, the crew evaluates remaining fuel and decides whether the flight can be continued to the original destination or must be diverted to a previously nominated refuelling destination.

###Decision Point "Reaching the (DP), the flight crew needs to decide:, Anticipated savings became reality:

"Contingency Fuel for the first segment was indeed superfluous and not needed, therefore now:FOB @ DP ≥ Fuel required for second segment, Continue to original destination + Anticipated savings did not become reality/ Divert to refuelling destination"

Requierment's what factor of A vs B with a formula

###""Requierment's what factor"

• A or B ensures an what factor for Refuling" Taking the A or B factors esnure greater feul with that procedure

###RCF

• RCF (Reduced Contingency Fuel Procedure)
• If crews is greater than / The location must be greater than this, the potential possiblty with this is greater!. ""
• Ranger and range must be very close.

###Fuel Time Procedure "Alternate Fuel

• LW Alternate= DOM + Traffics + Reserve Load
• Fuel and Air (distance , influcne must factored 1."start bottom

2. Wind influcne factor
3. go up vertially & intercect alternate

Charts of flight times

Then, You can add determined ALt fuel for Lw"" *

• Again "start bottom Wind and factors is that influcne the influcne
• 1 Intercent point
• Add Lw" *

Take Off chart analysis procedure

• Fuel Chart depends on Lw (load weight) at distance" "load and factors must considered*