Flight Planning and Navigation

Flight Planning

• Regulations require preflight action for all flights away from the departure airport's vicinity, including a review of specific information
• For IFR flights or flights not near an airport, preflight action includes reviewing NOTAMs, weather reports, ATC delays, runway lengths, available alternatives, fuel requirements, and takeoff/landing distance data - remembered with "NW KRAFT"
• Sectional charts, designed for visual navigation of slow to medium-speed aircraft, are one of the three aeronautical charts commonly used by pilots for VFR navigation, where 1 inch equals 6.86 nautical miles and are revised every 56 days
• Electronic Flight Bags (EFBs) can replace paper reference material (POH supplements, charts) if the displayed information is functionally equivalent, current, and valid, supplemented by a secondary source

Pilotage and Dead Reckoning

• Successful navigation requires pilots to know or determine their approximate position at all times
• A pilot's position determined by pilotage (reference to visible landmarks), dead reckoning (computing direction and distance from a known position), or radio navigation
• Pilotage is navigating using landmarks or checkpoints, often used with dead reckoning and VFR radio navigation

Effects on Flight Plans

• Winds aloft, specifically headwinds and tailwinds, significantly affect enroute time and fuel consumption
• Aircraft performance factors include time to climb, optimum TAS/fuel consumption, and airplane altitude limitations
• Terrain and obstacles to consider: Mountainous or rising terrain and antenna towers

Altitude Regulations

• Aircraft should maintain a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet above the surface when operating over a U.S. wildlife refuge, park, or Forest Service Area
• Hemispheric rule applies to VFR cruising altitudes when operating above 3,000 ft AGL

Latitude, Longitude, and Time Conversion

• Latitude, also known as parallels, measures north or south of the equator in degrees, minutes, and seconds
• Longitude, also known as meridians, measures east or west of the Prime Meridian in degrees, minutes, and seconds
• The Prime Meridian is 0° longitude and runs through Greenwich, England
• To convert from standard time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), take the local time (converted to military time) and add the time differential

Time Zone Conversions to UTC

• Eastern Standard Time: add 5 hours
• Central Standard Time: add 6 hours
• Mountain Standard Time: add 7 hours
• Pacific Standard Time: add 8 hours
• Alaska Standard Time: add 9 hours
• Hawaii Standard Time: add 10 hours
• Note: Subtract 1 hour from the above during Daylight Savings Time

Calculating ETA

• To determine ETA, convert departure time to UTC, then add flight time

Measuring Direction on Sectional Charts

• Measure direction on a sectional chart using meridians, in degrees, clockwise from true north
• Draw a line from the departure point to the destination and measure the angle the line forms with a meridian to indicate course
• Because meridians converge toward the poles, use a meridian along the course line for true course measurement

Magnetic Variation and Deviation

• Variation is compass error due to the difference between the magnetic north pole and the geographic north pole, expressed as east or west
• Deviation is due to magnetic influences in the aircraft
• Compass heading (CH) is the magnetic heading corrected for deviation

Determining Compass Heading

• Compass heading is calculated: TC + WCA = TH ± V = MH + D = CH

Preflight Briefing

• Requesting a briefing from 1800WXBRIEF provides current weather, airport, and enroute NAVAID information
• Self-briefing using online automated weather resources is also an option

Preparing a Flight Log

• When preparing a flight log:
  • Draw course lines and mark checkpoints on the chart
  • Enter checkpoints, measure distances, and total leg length
  • Input NAVAIDs and VOR courses
  • Note altitude, hemispherical rule, winds aloft, airspace, and terrain elevation
  • Record wind direction/velocity and temperature
  • Measure and enter the true course
  • Compute and log true airspeed, WCA, and ground speed
  • Determine and log variation from the chart
  • Determine and log deviation from the compass card
  • Input compass heading, measure and enter distances
  • Calculate and log estimated time enroute (ETE) and estimated time of arrival (ETA)
  • Calculate and log fuel burn and usage

Time, Speed and Distance Calculations

• To calculate ground speed given time and distance:
  • If time = 25 minutes and distance = 47 NM, ground speed = 113 knots
• To calculate time given distance and ground speed:
  • If distance = 84 NM and ground speed = 139 knots, time = 36 minutes
• To calculate distance given ground speed and time:
  • If ground speed = 85 knots and time = 51 minutes, distance = 72 NM

Fuel Consumption

• To calculate total fuel consumption:
  • If burn rate is 9.3 gallons/hour and flight time is 1 hour, 27 minutes, total fuel consumed equals 13.5 gallons
• To calculate hourly fuel consumption:
  • If flight time is 2 hours, 13 minutes and total fuel consumed is 32 gallons, the fuel consumption rate is 14.4 gph
• To calculate flight time based on fuel consumed:
  • If 38 gallons are consumed at a rate of 10.8 gallons per hour, the flight time equals 3 hours and 31 minutes

True Airspeed

• To calculate true airspeed:
  • At 10,000 feet, 0°C, and Indicated Air Speed (IAS) of 115 knots: True AirSpeed (TAS) = 135 knots
• To calculate true airspeed:
  • At 6,000 feet, -10°C, and IAS of 103 knots: TAS = 110 knots
• To calculate true airspeed:
  • If the temperature is 40°F, the IAS is 115 knots, and the altitude is 11,000 feet: TAS is 139 knots

Density Altitude

• To calculate density altitude:
  • Given a pressure altitude of 1,500 feet and a temperature of 35°C, the density altitude is 4,100 feet
• To calculate density altitude:
  • Given a pressure altitude of 5,000 feet and a temperature of -10°C, the density altitude is 3,150 feet
• To calculate density altitude:
  • Given a pressure altitude of 2,000 feet and a temperature of 30°C, the density altitude is 4,160 feet

Conversions

• 100 nautical miles equals 115 statute miles
• 12 quarts of oil equals 22.5 pounds
• 45 gallons of fuel equals 270 pounds
• 80°F equals 27°C

Ground Speed and True Heading

• If wind direction = 220°, wind speed = 030, true course = 146, and TAS = 135 knots: Ground speed is 124 knots, and true heading is 158°
• If wind direction = 240°, wind speed = 025, true course = 283, and TAS = 165 knots: Ground speed is 146 knots, and true heading is 277°
• If wind direction = 060°, wind speed = 030, true course = 036, and TAS = 140 knots: Ground speed is 112 knots, and true heading is 041°

VFR Flight Plans

• Regulations require a VFR flight plan to include:
  • Aircraft identification and radio call sign if necessary
  • Aircraft type or types and number if a formation flight
  • Pilot in command's full name and address or for a formation flight, the formation commander
  • Departure point and proposed time
  • Proposed route, cruising altitude/flight level, and true airspeed
  • The point of first intended landing and the estimated elapsed time
  • Fuel on board in hours
  • Number of people on board, unless readily available to the FAA
  • Any other information the pilot/ATC believes is necessary for ATC purposes
• A pilot can file a VFR flight plan by calling 1800WXBRIEF on the ground or FSS in the air
• VFR flight plans are retained for two hours after the proposed departure time and are not automatically activated by ATC

Activating VFR Flight Plans

• A pilot can determine the appropriate frequency for activating a VFR flight plan by asking the FSS briefer or consulting the communications section for flight services in the Chart Supplement U.S.
• If a flight plan is not reported or canceled within one-half hour after the ETA, search and rescue procedures are initiated
• FSS allows search and rescue efforts to begin

Navigation Systems and Radar Services

• Navigation aids include VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range), VORTAC (VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Air Navigation), and DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)
• VOR provides distance information to pilots with DME
• VORs operate between 108 and 117.95 MHz, below aviation communication frequencies

VOR Radials and Service Volumes

• A VOR radial is a line of magnetic bearing extending from a VOR
• A VOR projects 360 radials, identified by their direction from the station
• Regardless of heading, an aircraft on the 360° radial is north of the station
• VORs are designated by standard service volumes (SSV)
• Legacy SSV designations are Terminal (T), Low (L), and High (H)
• New SSV designations are VOR Low (VL) and VOR High (VH)

Altitudes and Ranges for Different VORs

• Terminal (T) VOR: 1,000 up to and including 12,000 feet, 25 NM
• Low Altitude (L) VOR: 1,000 up to and including 18,000 feet, 40 NM
• High Altitude (H) VOR:
  • 1,000 up to and including 14,500 feet, 40 NM
  • 14,500 up to and including 60,000 feet, 100 NM
  • 18,000 up to and including 45,000 feet, 130 NM
• VOR Low (VL):
  • 1,000 up to but not including 5,000 feet, 40 NM
  • 5,000 feet to 18,000 feet, 70 NM
• VOR High (VH):
  • 1,000 up to but not including 5,000 feet, 40 NM
  • 5,000 up to but not including 14,500 feet, 70 NM
  • 14,500 up to and including 60,000 feet, 100 NM
  • 18,000 up to and including 45,000 feet, 130 NM

VOR Reception Limitations

• VORs are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally with equipment altitude

VOR Accuracy Checks

• The methods for checking the accuracy of VOR receiver equipment are:
  • VOT check (± 4°)
  • Ground checkpoint (± 4°)
  • Airborne checkpoint (± 6°)
  • Dual VOR check (4° between each other)
  • Selected radial over a known ground location at radial distances up to 130 NM from 12,900 to 45,000 feet ATH

GPS (Global Positioning System)

• GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system used to determine precise position using satellite signals

RAIM Capability

• Without RAIM capability, the accuracy of GPS cannot be assured
• VFR GPS panel-mount receivers and handheld units lack RAIM alerting capability

Preflight Checks for GPS Navigation

• Preflight checks for GPS navigation include:
  • Verifying proper installation and certification
  • Confirming databases are current
  • Reviewing GPS NOTAM/RAIM information
  • Checking operational status of NAVAIDs and related aircraft equipment, like a 30-day VOR check
  • Ensuring the GPS receiver operation manual or airplane flight manual supplement is onboard

Obtaining GPS NOTAMs

• Pilots can obtain current GPS NOTAMs on the Federal NOTAM System (FNS) website

Transponders

• Mode C transmits position and pressure altitude automatically
• Mode S transmits position, pressure altitude, and permits data exchange

Transponder Codes

• Transponder codes:
  • 1200 - VFR operations
  • 7500 - Hijack
  • 7600 - Communications failure
  • 7700 - Emergency

Diversion Procedure

• Pilots may need to divert during a flight due to unexpected weather, system malfunction, poor preflight planning, passenger emergency, or runway/airport closure
• ADS-B systems integrated with the transponder automatically set the applicable emergency status for codes 7500, 7600, or 7700

Preparing for a Diversion

• Before takeoff, a pilot can prepare for a potential diversion by:
  • Checking charts for airports or suitable landing areas along the route
  • Identifying navigational aids for diversion
  • Carrying additional reserve fuel
  • Ensuring updated weather information

Actions When Lost

• When lost, the FAA recommends using the 4 Cs:
  • Climb for better communication and visual range
  • Communicate on 121.5 MHz if other frequencies fail
  • Confess to let them know
• 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are emergency frequencies guarded by military towers, civil towers, and radar facilities

Pilot In Command Emergency Authority

• In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the PIC may deviate from any rule in Part 91 to the extent required

General Regulations

• Each Pilot In Command who deviates from a Part 91 rule must, upon request from the Administrator, send a written report

Dropping Objects

• Object can only be dropped in formation flight except by arrangement with the pilot-in-command of each aircraft in the formation
  • An aircraft may not carry passengers for hire in formation flight

Air Speed Restrictions

• Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, the maximum indicated airspeed below 10,000 feet MSL is 250 knots (288 MPH)

Minimum Safe Altitude

• Minimum safe altitude allows for an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or property on the surface in case of a power unit failure

Altitude Setting Procedures

• When flying below 18,000 feet MSL, cruising altitude must be maintained using an altimeter set

VFR Day Fuel Minimums

• For VFR flight during the day, there must be enough fuel to fly to the first point of intended landing, and assuming normal cruising speed, to fly after that for at least 30 minutes

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) Batteries

• Batteries in an ELT must be replaced or recharged when the transmitter has been in use for more than 1 cumulative hour or when 50% of their useful life has expired

Use of Supplemental Oxygen

• Use of supplemental oxygen is not permitted for cabin pressure altitudes

Aerobatic Flight Restrictions

• Aerobatic flight is not permitted in certain areas