Sociology of Health

• Sociology of health is also referred to as medical sociology
• It studies the relationship between human health issues, medical institutions, and society through sociological theories and research methods
• According to Huber et al. (2011), the World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity
• According to Amzat and Razum (2014), sociology of health focuses on applying sociological perspectives and methods while studying health issues of human societies
• Its major focus is the sociocultural perspective related to human health and illness
• Sociology of health is interested in social factors that affect human health such as race, gender, sexuality, social class, and region
• It also studies the structures and processes in healthcare and medical institutes and their impact on health issues and patterns

Role of Sociology in Public Health

• There is a strong relationship between health and sociology
• Societies have their own cultural definitions of health and illnesses
• Sociology can help understand the definitions, prevalence, causes, and associated perspectives of diseases and illnesses
• Sociology can help understand the treatment-related issues in different societies

Sociological Perspectives

• Mooney, Knox, and Schacht (2007) define perspective as "a way of looking at the world."
• Sociology gives different perspectives on understanding society
• Three major theoretical perspectives exist in sociology:
  • Functionalist
  • Symbolic interactionist
  • Conflict perspective.

Functionalist Perspective

• Society functions as a human body where every part plays its role properly
• Effective management of health issues is essential for societies' smooth functioning
• Patients need treatment, and physicians need to provide this treatment

Conflict Perspective

• Conflict theory states that two social classes exist
• The lower class has less access to resources, is more prone to illness, and has less access to good-quality health care
• Equality should be ensued in society to ensure fair access to good healthcare

Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

• Health-related issues and social care are socially constructed terms
• Understanding schizophrenia differs in different societies, so treatment methods are diverse and require social perspectives for implementation

Social Construction of Health

• An important research topic in sociology of health
• States that many aspects of health and illness are socially constructed
• Introduced by Conrad and Barker (2010)
• Outlines three main subheadings under which diseases are stated to be socially constructed

Cultural Meaning of Illness

• Medical sociologists state that while diseases/disabilities exist biologically, some are considered worse due to added socio-cultural stigmas or negative perceptions.
• Stigmatization of illness can prevent patients from receiving the best care and seeking medical assistance
• AIDS is an example of a commonly stigmatized illness
• Suspicion from medical professionals about the genuineness of patients' diseases can affect their treatment

Experience of illness

• How individuals experience illness may depend on individual personalities and culture
• Some people may feel defined by a long-term illness
• Influence of culture can heavily influence the experience of patients' illnesses
• Fijian cultures appreciate larger bodies, so eating disorders did not exist there prior to the colonial period

Social Distribution of Health

• Outlines key points about the social distribution of health in the UK with the following factors:
  • Social class
  • Gender
  • Ethnicity
• These factors are social determinants of health that are nonmedical
• Sociologists try to explain why factors, such as where individual lives and their socioeconomic background, gender, and religion, affect their likelihood of getting ill

Social Distribution of Health by Social Class

• Low income babies and children have higher infant mortality rates than the national average in the UK
• Low income people are more likely to suffer from heart disease, strokes, and cancer
• Low income people are more likely to die before retirement age than the national average in the UK
• Social class inequalities exist at every age for all major diseases in the UK
• "Inequalities in Health Working Group Report" (1980), also known as the Black Report, found the poorer a is, the less likely they will be healthy
• The Inverse Care Law says that those with the most need for healthcare get the least, and those with the least need get the most
• The Marmot Review (2008) found that there is a gradient in health, where health improves as social status improves
• Sociologists have cultural and structural explanations for why differences in social class lead to health inequalities
• Cultural explanations suggest low income people make different health choices because of differing values
• Low income people are less likely to take advantage of public health opportunities such as vaccinations and health screenings,
• Low income people generally make 'riskier' lifestyle choices such as having poor diets, smoking, and less exercise
• The cultural deprivation theory contributes as an example of a cultural explanation for the differences between working and middle-class people
• Structural explanations include the cost of healthy diets and gym memberships, inability to access private healthcare, and quality of housing in poorer areas
• Society is structured in a way that disadvantages the low income class, and therefore they cannot take the same measures to stay healthy

Social Distribution of Health by Gender

• Women have a greater life expectancy than men in the UK by four years
• Men and boys have a greater likelihood of dying from accidents, injuries, and suicide, as well as from major diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases
• Women are at greater risk of sickness throughout their lives and seek medical attention more than men
• Women are more prone to mental health difficulties, like depression and anxiety and spend more of their lives with disability
• Several social explanations exist for the difference in health between men and women
• One explanation is employment, men are more likely to take risky obs, which leads to a higher likelihood of accidents or injuries due to machinery, hazards, and toxic chemicals
• Men are more likely to generally participate in risky activities, such as driving under the influence of alcohol or drugs, and extreme sports activities
• Men are more likely to smoke, which leads to long-term and serious health conditions
• More women have started smoking in recent years
• Women are less likely to drink alcohol and are less likely to drink over the recommended alcohol intake

Social Distribution of Health by Ethnicity

• Those of South Asian origin have higher rates of heart disease and stroke
• Those of African-Caribbean origin have higher rates of stroke, HIV/AIDS and schizophrenia
• Those of African origin have higher rates of sickle-cell anaemia
• Non-white people have higher mortality rates for diabetes-related conditions
• Cultural factors can explain some differences, for example, differences in diets, or attitudes towards the medical profession and medicine
• Social class is a significant intersection with ethnicity, as the social distribution of health by ethnicity is not the same across different social classes

The Sociological Perspective

• A view of the world that focuses on social patterns rather than individual behaviours
• Uses information that legislators, social workers, activists, and others will need to avoid abuse
• Involves framing problems are public issues rather than personal problems

Understanding Research Sources

• Scholars are most likely to trust data that come from reliable nonprofit and nonpartisan sources
• The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations are two examples
• Medical and sociological studies can be broadly divided into two research categories:
  • Qualitative
  • Quantitative

Evaluating Research Data

• In qualitative studies, researchers may spend months conducting in-depth interviews or observing a community
  • Qualitative research is evaluated most highly if the researcher actively sought data that might support or challenge preconceived notions and it the data the researcher offers seems to logically support conclusions
• Qualitative research is most useful for people understanding their lives, why people behave/think in specific ways, and how social interaction works
• Quantitative research aims to understand people, nature, and society by finding ways to turn observations into numbers and statistics
  • Most useful for assessing how often something occurs and how one thing may cause another
• An important recent trend in quantitative research is data: big studies that pull together multiple sets of data from populations

Explores the relationship between health, medical institutions, and society, using sociological theories and research. Focuses on sociocultural perspectives, examining how factors like race, gender, and social class impact health. Also studies healthcare structures and their effects on health issues.