Chapter 2

Concepts

Distinction between the 'pure people' and the 'corrupt elite'

Due to cultural differences

Concepts vary across cultures

Empirical testability

They provide abstract representations

To find a single commonality among two or more instances of an event

A single commonality among instances of an event and a common absence of a possible cause

The method of agreement looks for a common presence, while the method of difference looks for a common absence

To subtract all known causes of a complex set of events to find the remaining cause

Instances of an event across different geographic locations

To identify the cause of the illness

To set boundaries of a concept and determine membership

A regime is considered democratic if it has universal male and female suffrage

Translating the definition into testable operationalization

To facilitate comparison of different manifestations of a phenomenon

A manifestation is an instance of a concept

To translate a definition into measurable terms

To isolate the specific food item that is responsible for the illness

It provides a more nuanced understanding of the relationship between the variables

That the phenomenon is caused by a single factor

It is limited to identifying the necessary causes of the phenomenon

To organize the data in a systematic way to facilitate analysis

Atheoretical Case Study

Interpretative Case Study

To identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses for further research

Theory-Confirming Case Study

Interpretative Case Study

To identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses for further research

The assumption is that if one factor is present in all instances where the effect is present and absent in all instances where the effect is absent, then that factor is likely to be the cause of the effect.

The joint method helps to identify the cause by combining the insights from both the method of agreement and the method of difference, thereby increasing the reliability of the conclusion.

The table allows for a systematic comparison of the food taken by each family member and the occurrence of illness, facilitating the identification of the cause of the illness.

The primary advantage is that it allows for the identification of the cause of the illness by isolating the factor that is present in all instances where the effect is present and absent in all instances where the effect is absent.

The method of agreement involves identifying the common factor present in all instances where the effect is present, whereas the method of difference involves identifying the factor that is present in all instances where the effect is present and absent in all instances where the effect is absent.

Mill's methods can only identify probable causes, whereas scientific reasoning involves developing theories and hypotheses to explain why particular instances of causation occur. Scientific reasoning provides a deeper understanding of causation, going beyond mere identification.

In political science, observation of reality leads to the development of theory, which in turn informs further observation, creating a virtuous cycle. This cycle enables the refinement of theories and hypotheses.

Proportional systems may result in high environmental standards, as multiple parties with varying views must form a coalition, whereas presidential systems may lead to lower environmental standards, as a single party's views dominate.

In political science, research begins with a theory derived from observation of reality, whereas in other fields, research may start with a hypothesis or question.

Mill's methods can only identify probable causes, not explain why they occur. Other approaches, such as scientific reasoning, provide a deeper understanding of causation.

Aristotle's approach to understanding governments begins with observation, which informs theory, creating a virtuous cycle. This cycle enables the refinement of theories and hypotheses, informing our understanding of political systems.

A hypothesis-generating case study aims to identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses for further research, whereas an atheoretical case study focuses on describing a specific phenomenon without applying any existing theoretical framework.

The primary advantage is that it allows for a deeper understanding of the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions within the broader socio-political environment.

Theory-confirming case studies examine instances where the application of a particular theory or model correlates with specific outcomes, thus confirming or refining the theory.

A hypothesis-generating case study aims to identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses, whereas a theory-confirming case study examines instances where the application of a particular theory or model correlates with specific outcomes.

Atheoretical case studies provide detailed descriptions of specific phenomena, which can later be used to develop or refine theoretical frameworks.

The primary goal is to identify patterns or correlations that suggest potential hypotheses for further research, thus generating new insights into the phenomenon.

Empirical research provides a solid foundation for analyses and policy recommendations, allowing political scientists to move beyond speculation and providing a framework for understanding political dynamics.

The research question, time, budget, expertise, inclination, and task (and readership) are some of the factors that influence the choice of research method in political science, and they impact the research design by determining the approach and scope of the study.

Qualitative research focuses on understanding the context, meaning, and nuances of political phenomena through in-depth examination of non-numeric data, providing a richer understanding of complex political issues.

Political systems are influenced by historical context, socio-economic conditions, cultural norms, and international relations, and empirical research helps unravel these complexities by systematically studying and analyzing real-world data.

Empirical validation is essential for establishing the credibility of theories in political science, as it allows scholars to move beyond speculation and provides a solid foundation for analyses and policy recommendations.

Empirical research provides a solid foundation for policy recommendations, enabling political scientists to inform and shape policy decisions, which can have a significant impact on shaping our societies.

The deviant case study challenges conventional assumptions by showing that a political party traditionally associated with conservative ideologies can successfully implement environmentally friendly policies, prompting a re-evaluation of party platforms and the notion that conservative parties are universally resistant to environmental initiatives.

The primary goal of this case study is to challenge conventional assumptions that economic growth leads to increased political stability, contrary to mainstream economic theories.

The purpose of quantitative research is to systematically collect and analyze numerical data to identify patterns, relationships, and statistical significance, involving numeric data often obtained through surveys, experiments, or statistical sources.

The primary goal of this case study is to provide evidence supporting existing democratic theory regarding the positive impact of democratic institutions on human rights.

A deviant case study challenges conventional assumptions by showing an unexpected outcome, while a theory-infirming case study challenges existing theories by showing an unexpected lack of correlation, both prompting a re-evaluation of assumptions and theories.

The primary focus of this case study is to examine a specific election campaign without applying existing political theory, making it an exploratory case study.

Word Table = a piece of furniture with a flat top and one or more legs Concepts = are the only way to translate phenomena in the real world into “abstract” ideas Populism = society to be ultimately separated into two homogenous and antagonistic groups Empirically precise formulation = a potential “what”

Concepts = are socially constructed Populism = a thin-centered ideology Empirically precise formulation = a potential “what” Inuit = having multiple words for 'snow'

Concepts = to translate real-world phenomena into abstract ideas Empirically precise formulation = to translate the issues into a potential “what” Populism = to express the volonté generale Inuit = to indicate the different types of snow

Concepts = are related to the real world Empirically precise formulation = is related to the issues Populism = is related to the pure people and the corrupt elite Inuit = is related to the concept of snow

Concepts = are socially constructed Empirically precise formulation = is based on empirical testability Populism = is based on the idea of the people vs. the elite Inuit = is an indigenous culture

Concepts = imply that abstract ideas can be translated from the real world Empirically precise formulation = implies that the issues can be translated into a potential “what” Populism = implies that society is divided into two groups Inuit = implies that there are different types of snow

Aristotle = Comparison is essential for understanding justice John Locke = Comparison is the foundation of mathematics and demonstration Mill = Comparison is crucial for understanding causation Plato = Comparison is a tool for understanding the ideal state

Speculative method = Focuses on understanding the ideal state Comparative method = Compares different political systems Normative method = Evaluates political systems based on moral principles Empirical method = Focuses on observing and analyzing data

Monarchy = Rule by one person Aristocracy = Rule by the few virtuous Polity = Mixed government with elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy Oligarchy = Rule by the wealthy few

Tyranny = Corrupted form of monarchy Democracy = Rule by the many, where the poor are more powerful Aristocracy = Corrupted form of aristocracy Oligarchy = Corrupted form of government by the few

Method of residues = To identify the cause of an event by eliminating other factors Method of agreement = To identify the cause of an event by finding common factors Method of difference = To identify the cause of an event by comparing two instances Joint method of agreement and difference = To identify the cause of an event by combining the methods of agreement and difference

Hypothesis-generating case study = Aims to develop new theories and hypotheses Theory-confirming case study = Aims to test existing theories and hypotheses Deviant case study = Aims to challenge existing theories and hypotheses Atheoretical case study = Aims to describe a phenomenon without applying existing theories

Ambiguity = The meaning of the concept relates to the term. Vagueness = The concept is not directly observable or empirical. Operational definition = The process of determining how an empirical concept can be measured or detected. Concept = A testable proposition in social science.

Schumpeter = Coined the term 'democratic method' Sartori = Developed a rule for identifying a concept Mill = Proposed methods of agreement and difference Aristotle = Explored the concept of virtuous cycle in political science

Hypothesis-Generating Case Study = To understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions Deviant Case Study = To challenge conventional assumptions and prompt a re-evaluation of existing theories Theory-Confirming Case Study = To examine instances where the application of a democratic governance model correlates with increased protection of human rights Interpretative Case Study = To analyze the conception of climate change among young people

Concept = An abstract idea that represents a phenomenon Definition = A statement that describes the meaning of a concept Operationalization = The process of translating real-world phenomena into abstract ideas Minimal definition = A concise and clear definition of a concept

To compare conceptions of climate change between young and adult people = Quantitative research To examine the impact of democratic institutions on human rights = Case study To understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions = Qualitative research To analyze the relationship between a concept and its manifestations = Operationalization

Populism = A concept that is not directly observable or empirical Democracy = A concept that requires an operational definition Racism = A concept that is socially constructed Virtuous cycle = A concept that relates to Aristotle's approach to understanding governments

Qualitative research = Flexible and adaptable research design Quantitative research = Focus on breadth rather than depth Case-oriented research = Focus on a single case or a small number of cases Hypothesis-generating research = Aims to develop new theories or hypotheses

Atheoretical case study = Examines a specific phenomenon without applying any existing theory Interpretative case study = Analyzes the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions Hypothesis-generating case study = Aims to develop new theories or hypotheses Deviant case study = Challenges conventional assumptions and prompts re-evaluation of existing theories

Theda Skocpol = States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia and China John Stuart Mill = Developed Mill's methods for identifying causal relationships Aristotle = Approach to understanding governments and the concept of virtuous cycle Mudde = Definition of populism

Method of agreement = Identifies the common cause of a phenomenon Method of difference = Identifies the cause of a phenomenon by comparing cases Joint method of agreement and difference = Combines the method of agreement and difference Method of residues = Identifies the remaining factors after controlling for other variables

Single-case study = Analyzes a single case in-depth Small-N case study = Analyzes a small number of cases in-depth Theory-confirming case study = Tests existing theories or hypotheses Theory-infirming case study = Challenges existing theories or hypotheses

Concepts = Socially constructed abstract ideas Virtuous cycle = A self-reinforcing cycle of events Populism = A political ideology characterized by a strong leader and anti-elitism Environmental protection = A policy goal aimed at preserving natural resources

Theory-Infirming Case Study = Challenges conventional assumptions and prompts a re-evaluation of existing theories Deviant Case Study = Examines a case where a nation's economic growth does not lead to an increase in political stability Hypothesis-Generating Case Study = Aims to understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions within a socio-political environment Atheoretical Case Study = Examines a specific election campaign without applying any existing political theory

Quantitative Research = Involves numeric data, often obtained through surveys, experiments, or statistical sources Qualitative Research = Aims to understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions within a socio-political environment Method of Agreement = Helps to identify the cause of the illness in the buffet dinner example Method of Difference = Helps to identify the cause of the illness in the buffet dinner example

Theory-Infirming Case Study = Provides evidence supporting existing democratic theory regarding the positive impact of democratic institutions on human rights Deviant Case Study = Examines a political party that successfully implements environmentally friendly policies despite traditionally being associated with conservative ideologies Hypothesis-Generating Case Study = Aims to understand the meanings and interpretations individuals attach to their actions within a socio-political environment Atheoretical Case Study = Examines a specific election campaign without applying any existing political theory

Concepts are socially constructed = Implies that concepts can be subjective and influenced by social factors Virtuous Cycle = Relates to the concept of observation in the development of theory in political science Minimal Definition = Aims to provide a concise and clear understanding of a concept Operationalization = Aims to specify how to measure or manipulate a concept

Mill = Believes that comparison is crucial in identifying causal relationships Aristotle = Believes that observation is crucial in understanding governments Mudde = Believes that populism has a specific characteristic Unknown = Believes that quantitative research involves numeric data

Joint Method of Agreement and Difference = Helps to identify the cause of the illness in the buffet dinner example Method of Residues = Aims to identify the remaining factors that contribute to an outcome Method of Difference = Helps to identify the cause of the illness in the buffet dinner example Method of Agreement = Helps to identify the cause of the illness in the buffet dinner example