Social Psychology Theories and Ethics

Learning Outcomes

• This unit focuses on social identity theory, social cognitive theory, and the formation of stereotypes and their effect on behavior.
• References to relevant studies will be included.

The Sociocultural Approach

• Social psychology examines how thoughts, actions, and behaviors are influenced by interactions with others.
• Cultural psychology explains shared rules, values, and customs.

Ethical Issues in Social Psychology

• Deception is often used in social psychology studies to reduce demand characteristics in participants.
• Confederates (actors) are sometimes used to achieve this.
• Many famous studies predate ethical guidelines set by the APA.

The Milgram Experiment

• Stanley Milgram (1963) conducted a famous study on obedience.
• His interest stemmed from events during WWII to understand how ordinary people could participate in atrocious actions.
• Participants were assigned the roles of "teacher" and "learner." The learner was a confederate.
• Subjects were deceived to believe shocks were being administered to the learner.
• As shock levels increased, the learner protested, but the experimenter urged the participants to continue.
• 65% of participants delivered the full range of electric shocks.

The Milgram Machine

• The device used in the experiment, showing the progressive levels of shock to be administered.

The Milgram Experiment (continued)

• Obedience was strongest when the learner was in a separate room and the experimenter appeared authoritative.
• Deception was used in the study, including false aims, fake shocks and scripted reactions from the confederate.

Asch's Conformity Study

• Solomon Asch (1951) investigated the effects of group pressure on conformity.
• Participants were told they were involved in a study of line length perception.
• A group of confederates gave incorrect answers, aiming to observe the subject’s reaction.
• The subject always sat second to last.
• Only 24% of participants resisted conformity pressure.
• The presence of even one dissenter eliminated conformity pressures.
• Deception was utilized, but more responsibly compared to other studies.

Attribution

• Attribution examines the causes of behaviors.
• Factors can be internal (dispositional), related to personality, or external (situational), based on the surrounding environment.
• Fundamental attribution error: People often overestimate internal factors when observing others.
• Actor-observer bias: We tend to attribute our own behavior to external factors.
• Fundamental attribution error is more common in individualistic cultures.

Self-Serving Bias

• When successful, we usually attribute it to internal factors.
• When unsuccessful, we typically attribute it to external factors.
• Self-serving bias helps boost self-esteem.
• Modesty bias is its opposite and more common in collectivist societies.

Social Identity Theory

• Social identity theory examines how attitudes relate to group membership.
• Key components:
• Social categorization: dividing people into ingroups and outgroups.
• Social identification: identifying with a group and adopting its values.
• Social comparison: evaluating the ingroup's benefits against the outgroup.
• Positive distinctiveness: the belief that the ingroup is superior.
• Tajfel: goal of social identity theory is enhancing self-esteem through group membership.
• People show favoritism towards ingroups and negativity towards outgroups.
• Example: Tajfel et al. (1971) study where boys were organized based on their preference for art styles demonstrated in-group bias.

Robber's Cave Experiment

• Muzafer Sherif (1958) observed ethnocentrism by creating two equal groups at a camp (Eagles and Rattlers).
• The groups were isolated initially and then competed in activities.
• Each group felt their group was superior.
• Hostilities arose between the groups through fights and camp raids.
• Cooperation, created through shared emergencies, resulted in more positive views between them.
• Cooperation showed groups could be viewed in a broader perspective.

Stereotypes

• Stereotypes are beliefs about common traits of group members.
• Stereotypes can be harmful as they distort group perception, resulting in prejudice and discrimination.
• Common explanations for stereotypes are schemas and social identity theory (SIT).

Stereotypes (Schema)

• Schema theory suggests that stereotypes stem from automatic assumptions derived from past experiences.
• The "grain of truth" hypothesis explains how stereotypes are overgeneralizations.
• The role of attributional errors in stereotyping may not be fully explained by this theory.

Stereotypes (Social Identity Theory)

• Identification with a group often leads to stereotyping of outgroups (outgroup homogeneity).
• Studies show that remembering information associated with particular groups (like a librarian or waitress shown) relies on existing stereotypes.

Stereotype Threat

• Stereotype threat is the fear of confirming a negative stereotype about one's group.
• This anxiety can lead to decreased performance and a self-fulfilling prophecy.
• The opposite is stereotype boost (positive stereotype effects).
• Studies involving race, age, gender have shown significant effects.

Observational Learning

• Observational learning is acquiring a skill by imitating others (models).
• Also called vicarious conditioning.
• Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment (1961) is a famous study in this area.

Social Cognitive Theory

• Socialization is the process of learning acceptable societal behaviors.
• Major agents include parents, peers, schools, and media.
• Learning can occur directly through instruction or indirectly through observed models.
• Key example: development of acceptable gender roles.

Social Cognitive Theory (mediating variables)

• Social Cognitive Theory is based on four factors:
• Attention: proper focus during learning.
• Retention: remembering the learned information.
• Motor Reproduction: physical ability to reproduce the actions.
• Motivation: want to learn and perform the actions.
• Other variables such as self-efficacy can also play a role.

Bandura's Bobo Doll Study

• Bandura's Bobo Doll study investigated whether aggressive behavior could be copied by children from observing adult models.
• Children who observed an aggressive model displayed more aggressive behavior themselves.

TV and Video Game Violence

• Research by Anderson & Bushman (2001) found a correlation between media violence exposure and aggressive behavior.
• Directionality needs to be considered - do children exposed to violent media become aggressive, or are aggressive children more drawn to such media?

Is Social Cognitive Theory True?

• Gergely et al. (2002) showed infants could imitate unexpected behaviours exhibited by adults. (Not simply copying).
• Charlton et al. (2002) studied a remote island when TV was introduced and found no increase in aggression. This contradicted some social learning predictions.

Evaluation of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)

• Strengths: Strong research support, explains how behavior is passed down through generations, and expands on past learning theories.
• Weaknesses: Cognitive variables (e.g., self-efficacy) are difficult to measure, and learning does not always translate to demonstrated behavior. Research has contradicted some predictions of SCT.