Podcast
Questions and Answers
What distinguishes scientific cognition from everyday cognition?
What distinguishes scientific cognition from everyday cognition?
Which of the following describes the aims of social psychology?
Which of the following describes the aims of social psychology?
What is a key limitation of social psychology mentioned in the content?
What is a key limitation of social psychology mentioned in the content?
How does empirical science gather knowledge?
How does empirical science gather knowledge?
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What aspect of everyday cognition is specifically highlighted in the content?
What aspect of everyday cognition is specifically highlighted in the content?
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What is a primary disadvantage of laboratory experiments?
What is a primary disadvantage of laboratory experiments?
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Which of the following is considered an advantage of field experiments?
Which of the following is considered an advantage of field experiments?
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Which statement accurately reflects a characteristic of natural experiments?
Which statement accurately reflects a characteristic of natural experiments?
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What is a major limitation of correlation studies?
What is a major limitation of correlation studies?
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Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of both field and natural experiments?
Which of the following is NOT a typical characteristic of both field and natural experiments?
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What is the main purpose of using independent variables in an experiment?
What is the main purpose of using independent variables in an experiment?
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Which of the following methods would provide the least control over extraneous variables?
Which of the following methods would provide the least control over extraneous variables?
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What does internal validity refer to in the context of experimental research?
What does internal validity refer to in the context of experimental research?
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What is the significance of random allocation in experimental research?
What is the significance of random allocation in experimental research?
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Which of the following describes extraneous variables?
Which of the following describes extraneous variables?
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Study Notes
Ethics and Methods in the Milgram Experiment
- The Milgram experiment had methodological flaws.
- Laboratory experiments often lack external validity, meaning the findings aren't easily generalizable to other settings.
- The sample was biased, consisting only of male participants in the initial experiment
- Participants might have discontinued the experiment or been pressured by the experimenter.
- Despite flaws, the experiment altered perspectives on obedience and responsibility.
- It contributed to the ethical guidelines for research in social psychology.
Ethical Issues
- The experiment caused considerable stress and psychological harm to participants.
- Teachers experienced strong emotional reactions such as nervous laughter, nail-biting, and fits of giggling.
- Long-term psychological harm could result from the experiment.
- Participants could feel abused and ridiculous, given the misleading instructions relating to harming others.
- The experiment risked damaging the credibility of social psychologists.
Experiments in Social Psychology and Ethics
- Freedom of scientific inquiry conflicts with individuals' rights to dignity and privacy.
- Researchers must consider the potential social costs of an experiment against its potential benefits.
Main Ethical Concerns
- Deception: misleading participants about the true nature of the experiment.
- Key questions: Why is deception necessary? Is it justifiable?
- Harmful effects:
- Physical harm, e.g., pain, discomfort.
- Psychological harm, e.g., damage to dignity, distress.
Ethical Codes and Committees
- Ethical codes, like those of the Hungarian Psychological Association (HPA), guide research conduct.
- Institutions have ethical review committees that evaluate research proposals, potentially rejecting or modifying them.
Ethical Principles
- Principle of Protection: Researchers must safeguard participants from physical and mental harm exceeding that of everyday life.
- Principle of Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the experiment's procedures and aspects before agreeing.
- Principle of Confidentiality: Confidential and anonymous data collection is crucial, unless participants give specific consent.
When Deception is Necessary
- Deception is sometimes necessary to avoid biasing results.
- Deception is not always acceptable; however, it must be justified.
- Examples include deception about the true aim of the study and study hypotheses.
- Other potential areas where deception can apply: charitable giving, ethnic/gender prejudice, aggression and conformity.
Debriefing
- Debriefing is crucial after an experiment, especially if deception was used.
- The experimenter must fully disclose the aim and methodology of the experiment to the participants.
- They must explain why deception was necessary, and if appropriate ensure participants leave the study in good mental health.
- Debriefing also assists the experimenter in evaluating the effectiveness of any deception.
Does Regulation Imped Research? (Milgram Reloaded)
- The Milgram experiment was reenacted following modern ethical standards.
- Researchers implemented measures like psychological evaluations of potential participants, ensuring suitable mental health.
- Participants were informed repeatedly that they could withdraw from the study without penalty.
- The study ended earlier than in the original experiment, thus avoiding potential harm.
- Resulting obedience in the revisited experiment was a comparable rate to the original study.
Social Psychologist vs. Layperson: Cognition
- Social psychologists approach issues differently from laypersons, often based on rigorous research rather than common sense, e.g., judging the happiness of lottery winners versus those with ill-health.
- Conclusions drawn from scientific studies may not always align with common sense.
- Human biases often impact our judgments, sometimes without our awareness.
Everyday vs. Scientific Cognition
- Everyday cognition is imprecise and undisciplined, prone to overgeneralizations, and lacking systematic analysis.
- Scientific cognition is precise, with critical evaluation and empirical evidence forming its central components.
What is Social Psychology?
- Social psychology studies how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by others.
What is Social Psychology Good For?
- Social psychology aims to make verifiable observations, generate hypotheses and ultimately to draw, from these observations, explanations about the social world.
What is Social Psychology Not Good For?
- Social psychology is not a handbook for life.
- It is not a simple compilation of folk wisdom.
- It is a complex academic discipline, not a simple, definitive set of answers or explanations.
Methods
- Understanding the methodologies used by social psychologists is crucial.
Methodology of Empirical Sciences
- Empirical science relies on observable experience to form conclusions about the social world.
- Social Psychology builds theories from observed patterns. This involves identifying correlations in people's behavior.
- The goal is to make predictions about human behavior and to understand the psychology behind these patterns and relations.
Sources of Data
- Social psychology, like other sciences, collects data using systematic observation.
- Methods range from laboratory experiments to field experiments, correlational studies, descriptive studies, participant observation, surveys, and longitudinal studies.
Experimenting 101
- Experimentation involves identifying variables and analyzing cause-and-effect relationships.
- Independent variables are manipulated, while dependent variables are observed for change.
- Extraneous variables must be controlled to avoid confounding factors.
On Experimental Social Psychology
- Random allocation ensures each participant has an equal chance of being in any group.
- This minimizes participant effects and increases objectivity in the study.
- Internal validity examines the relationship between independent and dependent variables in an experiment.
- External validity examines how easily the results of an experiment can be applied to other contexts.
Laboratory Experiment
- Laboratory experiments offer good control over variables but potentially lower external validity due to the artificial environment.
- The experimental setting may affect results if extraneous variables are not appropriately controlled.
Field Experiment
- Field experiments reduce demand characteristics if participants are unaware of being observed.
- They offer more realistic settings but are harder to control for extraneous variables.
Natural Experiment
- Natural experiments occur in naturalistic settings without researcher manipulation.
- These studies, however, have lower internal validity and often involve observations rather than systematic manipulation, thus providing an understanding of variables and patterns, but not necessarily cause and effect.
Correlation
- Correlation studies analyze co-occurrence patterns between variables without assuming causality.
- Correlation coefficients indicate the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the association between variables.
Correlation and Causality
- Correlation does not imply causation.
- Other factors (confounding variables) might influence the apparent relationship between variables.
Be Careful with Correlation!
- Correlations might highlight coincidental relationships that do not represent causality.
Types of Tests
- Multiple-choice and projective tests are both used in psychological experiments and testing.
Data vs. Theories
- The same data can often be explained by multiple competing theories.
Demonstration
- Critically evaluating causality requires considering alternative explanations for observed patterns.
Qualitative Methods
- Qualitative research focuses on understanding phenomena in their real-world contexts.
Qualitative Research
- Qualitative research employs rigorous observation, data collection, and analysis techniques.
- It explores phenomena in their inherent context.
- Results may vary through different perspectives and interpretations of the same phenomenon.
Qualitative Research: Pros and Cons
- Advantages: Rich, in-depth data, contextually relevant understanding.
- Disadvantages: Lower generalizability, harder to reproduce, subjective interpretation.
Observation: Pros and Cons
- Advantages: Real-world context, fewer intervention effects(natural setting), understanding complex situations.
- Disadvantages: Time-consuming, risk of bias (observer effect), difficulty establishing cause-and-effect.
Content Analysis
- Content analysis systematically analyzes textual material or similar sources from real events.
Content Analysis: Pros and Cons
- Advantages: Unstructured data handling (wide range of documents/events), time-span approach, broad geographic analysis.
- Disadvantages: Difficult to create standardized categories, time consuming, potential for oversimplification, often reduced to simple counting variables rather than evaluating complex meanings.
Interview
- Advantages: Flexible, in-depth data, tailor-made approach to questions.
- Disadvantages: Time-consuming data collection method, low generalizability (results in one person don't always apply to other people), potential for bias.
Case Study
- Case studies provide in-depth, detailed accounts of one or more social phenomena.
- They often involve diverse research methods to create a complete picture.
- Case studies may focus on individual persons or broader social systems.
Focus Group
- Focus group interviews involve small groups of participants to elicit diverse perspectives and interactions relating to a given topic.
Functions and Significance
- Purpose of research methods (e.g. interviews, focus-groups, experiments) in social psychology.
Evaluating the Method
- Assessing the strengths and weaknesses of each method based on its ability to generate effective outcomes regarding the aim of the study and question being asked.
Summary
- Social psychology uses various methods to collect and analyze data to understand human behavior, both individually, and as a group.
- Considering various alternative models (e.g. competing theory) to develop and validate results.
- Correlation does not imply causation.
Literature
- Relevant published work contributing to the field of social psychological research.
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Description
Explore the ethical issues and methodological flaws of the Milgram experiment, a pivotal study in social psychology. Discover how the experiment's design and participant treatment sparked significant changes in ethical guidelines for psychological research. Reflect on the long-term effects and validity of the findings.
