Cooperation 3 PDF

Cooperation 3 Split or Steal The basic set up of split or steal and the results (average sum of money at stake: 20k pounds) Two opponents have achieved a 14 thousand dollar win but they have to decide now if they want to split the money or if they will try to take everything for themselves. If they...

Cooperation 3 Split or Steal The basic set up of split or steal and the results (average sum of money at stake: 20k pounds) Two opponents have achieved a 14 thousand dollar win but they have to decide now if they want to split the money or if they will try to take everything for themselves. If they both decide to Steal then both get zero. They dont know the answer of the other one but they can argue with each other and try to convince each other that they’ll pick split. Result: Young men below 30 are the most uncooperative People. Older Men over 30 are way more cooperative. Why are young people less cooperative? They are less fortune and need the money more -> The effect of the payoff would bloom larger for younger peoble that for older. Also young men are way more agressive when they’re young. What would make People more selfish? - Anonymty -> If no one knew me, i would cooperate less - Not knowing who my opponet is Striking parallels between biological and organizational writings - - - Organis(...) (Organism/ Organisation) must perform an number of tasks to survive (...). When will the conditions favor a division of labor, with different individuals performing different tasks? To illustrate this problem with a specific example, consider two tasks, A, and B. We assume that that investment into these two activities must be traded off against each other because time and energy spent on A cannot be spent on B. Division of labor will tend to be favored when the shape of the relationship between proportion of resources allocated to each task and the fi(...) return are accelerating. -> Putting an organizsation into work is very similiar to a Organism Stuart West (Department of Zoology, Oxford University) et al., Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 2015. In biology, more complex forms of life are also called “new levels of organizations” The human body is an “organization” in which different cells are “employed”. Nerve cells, muscle cells, skin cells, are units with different specializations. The body is an organization in which there is highly specialized division of labor. Then central mechanism to allow for higher complexity is cooperation. Cooperation is probably the most important variable affecting success in business organizations as well. Cooperation-very broadly- is necessary for the evolution of new levels of organization Not only anatomy and physiology is affected by natural selection, behavior as well - - Evolution of behavior is investigated by o Biology, especially sociobiology o Psychology, especially evolutionary psychology o Economics, especially behavioral economics o Sociology o Mathematics and computer science, especially through agent-based computational models How did cooperation evolve? 1 - How can organizations foster a cooperative work environment (and why should they do it)? Morgan’s Images of the Organization: Organizations as organisms... Well, actually, this is not much of a metaphor, it is true Iceberg Model of Organizaition What is cooperation? A donor pays a cost to a Recipient, who gets a benefit The prisoner’s dilemma Prisonner dilemma with strictly dominant strategy. - Two rational players defect and end up with a low payoff, 0 Two irrational players might cooperate and receive a higher payoff, b-c. Natural selection chooses defection Natural selection needs help to favor cooperators over defectors - Mechanisms for the evolution of cooperation o Kin selection o Direct reciprocity o Indirect reciprocity o Spatial selection o Group selection - What can we learn from these mechanisms when creating a cooperative work environment? 2 Kin selection – What does it mean to be related to someone? Kin (= a person we are related to -> share part of the genome) - Identical twins share their genome o In terms of genes, it does not matter is you safe yourself or your twin in case of danger - Full siblings who are not twins share 50 % of their genome o More accurately: For each gene, there is a 50 % probability that they share the same variant - We can leave copies of our genes in the next generation by reproducing, but also by helping relatives reproduce - Half brothers share 25% of their genome, and so on... The cooperative interaction occurs between genetic relatives „I will gladly jump into the river to save 2 brothers or 8 cousins“ Inclusive Fitness Theory - - Hamilton‘s rule o r > c/b o Where: ▪ r is the coefficient of relatedness ▪ c is the cost of cooperation ▪ b is the benefit of cooperation Inclusive fitness theory o People go for maximal fitness where o Fitness = direct Fitness (own genes in self) + indirect Fitness (own genes in relatives) Evidence of cooperation among kin in the animal kingdom - - Cooperation among kin starts after birth o Mammals nurse their offspring, bearing a cost, while giving the benefit to the child o Females rarely nurse someone else‘s offspring o Allomothering (taking care of someone else‘s child), however, is frequent o Most common allomother (in vervet monkeys): The female‘s kid sister In marmosets, who form stable pair-bonds, we find high paternal investment in children (i.e., they know it is their offspring) Primates: o Baboons: Females spend their whole life in the natal group (the males migrate to a new group at puberty) -> cooperative networks among females o Chimpanzees: Males spend their whole life in the natal group (the females leave at puberty), kinbased adult cooperation occurs among males Recognition of relatives - Rodents (Nageltiere) produce pheromonal odors with individual signatures, derived from genes o The closer the relative, the more similar their cluster of MHC genes and the more similar their olfactory signature o Olfactory sensors in the mouse’s nose respond most strongly to the mouse’s own MHC protein. o In rats, pregnancy triggers neurogenesis in the olfactory system (it’s time to learn the smell of a newborn), if neurogenesis is inhibited, maternal behavior is impaired. - Hamilton speculated about a “green beard effect” o If an organism has a gene that codes both for growing a green beard and cooperating with other green beards, green bearders flourish in a mixed society 3 o Among humans: ▪ Parochialism ▪ Xenophobia ▪ Humanity How are our societies structured, do we even encounter relatives? - - - For 95% of our species history, we lived as hunter-gatherers There are still plenty of hunter-gatherer societies living today o Assumption: Contemporary hunter-gatherer societies provide a „window into the past“, showing us how we lived as hunter-gatherers thousands of years ago. Contemporary hunter-gatherer societies show extensive cooperation among the members of a residential unit („bands“), unparalleled by other animals o Band-wide food sharing o High levels of allomaternal child-care o Daily cooperative food acquisition o Collaborative construction and maintainance of living space – Transportation of children and possessions o Provision of public goods on a daily base In addition: slow juvenile growth, late sexual maturity, high fertility, high adult survivorship, long life-span after reproductive phase If we primarily live among non-relatives, kin selection alone cannot explain how we solve the prisoner’s dilemma... (i’ll scratch your back, you scratch mine“) Life is not a one-shot game: Repeated prisoner’s dilemma • Player 1: CDCDCCC... • Player 2: DCDDCCC... The Folk Theorem If there is a shadow of the future (He knows we will see each other next week, we know too, he knows we know etc.) AND - Humans care about having a payoff in the future - Cooperation may be an equilibrium strategy of selfishly motivated actors - How does the factor on the future (delta) needs to be? It depends on the benefits of cooperation... Robert Axelrod: What is a good strategy for playing this game? - Political scientist Robert Axelrod famously invited people to the prisoner’s dilemma tournament in the 1980s. - Scientists were contacted and asked to submit a strategy of how an agent will play against another agent in an iterated game, with a probability greater zero that there will be another round. - Many scientists submitted a strategy - The winner was Anatol Rapoport o Systems theory 4 Rapoports strategy: Tit-for-tat - I start with cooperation If you cooperate, then I will cooperate again - If you defect, then I will defect - Tit-for-tat is nice (it starts with cooperation), lenient (will return to cooperation if other cooperates), and intends to reach equal payoffs (does not defect in the last rounds) ➔ this is what we would call a nice person - Problem: Tit-for-tat has some weaknesses o Cooperation is instable -> Two “Tit-for-tat”’s can end up in a vendetta because it is fragile o Tit-for-tat is fragile in case of errors -> player attempts to play C, but choses D. ▪ Tit-for-tat: CCCCDCDCDCDDDDDDDDDDD ▪ Tit-for-tat: CCCDCDCDCDDDDDDDDDDDD ➔ We want a strategy that is a bit more resistent against errors Alternative: Generous tit-for-tat - I start with cooperation - If you cooperate, I will cooperate - If you defect, then I will cooperate with a certain probability (q = 1 – c / b) - Evolution of forgiveness Direct reciprocity allows the evolution of cooperation... - - ... if the probability of another round exceeds the cost benefit ratio o w>c/b ▪ w = probability of another round ▪ c = cost of cooperation ▪ b = benefit of cooperation Problem: What if the group growth explodes? Indirect reciprocity - I’ll scratch your back, someone else scratches mine Indirect reciprocity works via reputation Experimental results: People help those who help others, helpful people have a higher payoff in the end Gossip spreads reputation “For direct reciprocity you need a face, for indirect reciprocity you need a name” 5 Group selection (Nowak, 2006, Science, Review) - - Selection does not only act on individuals, but also on groups o A group of cooperators may be more successful than a group of defectors Strong debate about the role of group selection, but renaissance under the term “multilevel selection” Models is straightforward: o Population is subdivided into groups o Cooperators help others in their group o Defectors do not help o Individuals reproduce according to their payoff o Offspring are added to the same group o If groups are large enough, they split, another group becomes extinct o Only individuals reproduce, but selection works twofold -> Within each group & Between the groups Selection within groups favors defectors, selection between groups favor cooperators Result: With help of mathematically convenient limits: ▪ Weak selection ▪ Rare group splitting o We observe the result: ▪ b/c > 1 + (n/m), where n is the number of individuals, m is the number of groups Summary – How could cooperation have evolved? - Kin selection: o The coefficient of relatedness needs to exceed the cost/benefit ratio of cooperation - Direct reciprocity: o The probability of another round has to exceed the cost/benefit ratio of cooperation - Indirect reciprocity: o The probability to know someone’s reputation has to exceed the cost/benefit ratio of cooperation - Spatial selection (Network reciprocity): o The number of neighbors needs to be smaller than the benefit/cost ratio - Group selection: o N (group size), M (Number of group), benefits/costs need to be larger than 1 +n/m➔ Importantly: In none of these models is cooperation an altruistic act. It evolves because it maximized the agents payoffs. 10 ways of making your organization more cooperative - - It is essential to work on the main mechanism of the evolution of cooperation 1. Make cooperation worth while (increase the benefits of cooperation) 2. Make cooperation cheaper (decrease the cost of cooperation) 3. Incur a sense of identity (“green beard theories”, cognitive similarity, instead of kin, create a “shared vision”, “culture of cooperation”) 4. Allow reputation to spread in the organization 5. Create a shadow of the future 6. Create stability in the social network( or use very good reputation systems) 7. Do not undermine the human ability to cooperate (-> we are champions of cooperation as we are) Create institutions that help create a cooperative work environment where it does not intrinsically happen 8. Sanctioning systems 9. Reward systems 10. Threat of ostracism (being kicked out of the group) 6