Social Learning & Cultural Transmission

Social Learning

• Social learning is when beings acquire information from each other, also called observational learning.
• Humans are unique in their ability to pass information down from one generation to the next.
• Cultural transmission of knowledge includes things like writing and transportation.

Animal Knowledge Transfer

• An 18-month-old Imo washed potatoes in a stream.
• Imo's mom and two playmates (and their mothers) started washing potatoes three months later after observing Imo.
• Over the next 2 years, seven youngsters watched Imo washing potatoes.
• Three years after Imo's initial observation, 40% of the troop washed potatoes.

Animal behavior and social learning caveats

• BC Monkeys adopt behaviours easily on their own, without needing to copy others.
• Washing food in water was often spontaneously observed in other clans of Monkeys.
• The spread of behaviours in BC Monkeys was initially slow.
• The speed didn't increase as more monkeys learned those behaviours.

Social Learning in Children - Lyons (2007)

• Observed children aged 3-5 years old.
• Two steps were relevant to getting a treat.
• Two steps were not relevant to getting the treat.
• When the goal is not obvious, children used mimicry and over-imitation.
• Children over-imitated because they saw others (adults) do it.
• Chimps skipped over the non-relevant steps to get the treat.

Unique Human Traits

• Humans have a genetic predisposition to pay attention to each other.
• Humans have a biological bias towards social interactions.
• Pointing is a unique developmental milestone in infancy.
• Humans have shared attention and emotional bonding.

Parenting Styles: Warmth & Responsiveness

• High Warmth: being openly warm and affectionate, involved with children, and responding to emotional needs.
• Low Warmth: being focused more on one's own needs, sometimes hostile.

Parenting Styles: Control

• Control is the effort to set rules and impose limitations on what children can do.

Parenting Styles - Overview

• Authoritative parenting involves explaining rules and encouraging discussion.
• Authoritarian parenting involves rules that are to be followed without discussion, respect and obedience is valued and prioritized.
• Permissive-Indulgent parenting involves infrequent punishment and allowance of children to do what they want.
• Rejecting/Neglecting parenting provides for basic needs but little else.

Impact of Parenting Styles

• Authoritative parenting results in responsible, self-reliant, friendly children and academic achievement.
• Authoritarian parenting results in unhappy, low self-esteem, often aggressive children.
• Permissive-Indulgent parenting results in impulsive children with little self-control.
• Rejecting/Neglecting parenting results in the most difficulties, including poor academic performance and aggression.

Cultural Differences in Parenting

• Hamilton found that low depression ratings (Grade 10) are associated with positive parenting styles.
• Asian cultures prioritize cooperation and collaboration, so authoritarian parenting is associated with positive outcomes.
• Latino cultures value respect for family, which can result in authoritarian parenting.
• Low SES is associated with more controlling and punitive parenting styles.

The Bottom Line of Parenting

• Uncertainty gives individuals stress and anxiety.
• Parents get frustrated when they do not understand their children's behavior.
• Children get upset when they do not understand their parents.
• Humans are unique because social learning and language give parents the unique job to lead by example.
• Communicating with each other is very important.

Parental Behavior and Learning

• Observational learning includes counter-imitation; learning what not to do.
• Direct instruction involves telling a child what to do, when, and why.
• Have to explain to children why it is important to have good manners.
• Feedback is about recalling principles of conditioning.
• Reinforcement increases the recurrence of responses.
• Punishment decreases the recurrence of responses.

Negative Reinforcement Trap

• Parents may unknowingly reinforce behaviors they want to discourage.
• Example:
• Mom: "Go clean your room!"
• Son: "But mom...I just need to finish this one game...all my friends are online right now (in whiny voice)"
• Mom: "Ok, fine, one more game."
• The mom reinforced complaining/whining behavior by withdrawing the rule.

Extinction in Psychology

• Extinction is the disappearance of a response because of a lack of reinforcement.
• Lectures can become boring if there are no in-class assignments, grades, or hints about tests.
• With continuous reinforcement, the individual notices the withheld reward and becomes disappointed/angry.
• Avoid praising for everything, or the child will expect it.
• With partial reinforcement, it takes longer to extinguish behavior, so praise must be warranted.
• The child will work harder to get the praise or reinforcement.

Legality of Spanking in Canada

• Section 43 of the Criminal Code of Canada says that every schoolteacher, parent, or person standing in the place of a parent is justified in using force by way of correction toward a pupil or child, as the case may be, who is under his care, if the force does not exceed what is reasonable under the circumstances.
• On January 30, 2004, the Supreme Court of Canada decided that this does not violate the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.
• Parents can use physical force as long as it's reasonable.

Appropriate use of Physical Punishment

• Physical punishment is only allowed for children between 2-12 years old.
• Physical punishment must not be degrading, humiliating, or harmful (only to correct).
• It should not be delivered when one is collected and not angered.
• It should be used to correct or teach the child.
• It is best when administered directly after the undesired behavior in a consistent manner, accompanied by an explanation, within a warm and affectionate relationship.

Punishment and Extinction

• Skinner found that punishment reduces behavior only while the punishing agent is present.
• Behavior resumes when the threat of punishment is removed.
• Punishment does not lead to extinction of responses.
• Punishment teaches what is inappropriate behavior but does not provide guidance about desirable behavior.

Parenting and Consequences

• Best practice is to give praise (reward) when an infant/child engages in desirable behavior and withhold attention (removal of reward) when infant/child engages in undesirable behavior.
• The removal of a reward leads to the extinction of behavior.
• Punishment is effective only if parents are present.
• Punishment does not provide a model for "appropriate” behavior, so explanations and examples of good behavior have to be added.
• Consistency is the most important factor for good parenting.
• The brain adapts to different environments and parents need to think about the kind of environment they are creating for their child.

Types of Infant Play

• Parallel play: 1-year-olds play alone but are interested in what others are doing.
• Associate play: 15- to 18-month-olds engage in similar activities, may talk/smile to each other, or offer toys.
• Cooperative play: 2-year-olds will play interactively with special roles.

Preschool Play

• Cooperative play happens through make-believe.
• Type of play is affected by culture.
• Adults are less likely to engage in pretend play in some cultures
• Play often involves acting out adult roles.
• Preschoolers with imaginary friends tend to be more sociable, have more real friends, and have greater self-awareness.
• Complexity of play increases with better language, memory, and executive function.

Childhood Friends

• Friendships are voluntary relationships between two people with mutual liking.
• In early years, activities are performed together.
• As children develop, psychological dimensions (aka trust and support) are shared.
• Adolescence is when intimacy forms, and includes sharing secrets, trust with friends, and exploring romantic partners and sexual activity.

Moral Development

• Piaget argued that the interactions of peers drives children to progress from heteronomous to autonomous moral thinking.
• Disputes must be resolved through negotiations, leading to a flexible understanding of rules and understanding the intention behind those rules.