Social Concepts: Closure, Control, and Mobility

Social Concepts

• Social closure happens when a group restricts access to resources/opportunities to remain in power, like access to exclusive clubs/elite schools.
• Social control theory posits that strong social ties/institutions deter deviant behavior.
• Social mobility is how people move up/down a social hierarchy over a period.

Deviance and Conformity

• Defining deviance is determining behaviors considered unacceptable in society.
• Labeling someone as "deviant" can lead to more deviance, which informs labeling theory.
• The functionalist perspective on deviance is that deviance reinforces norms or creates social change, thus serving a role in society.
• Secondary deviance occurs when someone repeatedly engages in deviance after being labeled as deviant.
• Conflict perspective on deviance states that powerful people define deviance to protect their interests
• Normative behavior follows social norms/expectations.
• Conformity involves adjusting behavior to match group norms.
• Solomon Asch's "vision test" showed how peer pressure influences conformity.

Stratification and Class

• Defining stratification explains how society ranks people based on wealth, power, and status.
• Ascribed status is given at birth such as race or royalty, whereas achieved status is earned such as a career or through education.
• Characteristics of a class society includes social mobility, though economic and social differences still determine people's opportunities.
• In caste societies, social status is fixed at birth, with nearly impossible mobility, similar to India's historical caste system.
• Differential opportunity theory suggests access to illegitimate opportunities like crime varies based on social class.
• Opportunity theory suggests that crime happens when people see a chance to succeed through illegitimate means.
• Gilbert and Kahl developed a model describing the U.S. class structure, from the capitalist class to the underclass.
• Most Americans perceive themselves as "middle class," with economic data suggests otherwise.

Capital / Resources

• Cultural capital consists of knowledge, skills, education, and social assets that help people succeed in society.
• Social capital consists of the value of relationships, networks, and connections in gaining opportunities.
• Economic, social, & cultural capital include wealth, connections, and knowledge that influence social mobility.

Crime and Punishment

• Capital punishment is the death penalty as a legal punishment.
• Differential sanctions based on gender refers to how men/women get different punishments for the same actions.
• Property crime involves physical theft like burglary, while white-collar crime involves deception for financial gain like fraud.
• Mandatory minimum sentencing are laws that set fixed prison terms for certain crimes, thus reducing judicial discretion.
• The school-to-prison pipeline describes tactics where strict school discipline policies push students (often minorities) toward incarceration.
• Broken Windows Theory is the idea that visible signs of disorder like graffiti encourage more crime.

Social Groups

• Dyads are two-person groups (more intimate but fragile), while triads are three-person groups (more stable, but can lead to conflicts).
• Primary groups like family have deep connections, while secondary groups like classmates are more goal-oriented.
• Groupthink happens when a group prioritizes agreement over critical thinking, thus leading to poor decisions.

Theories and Concepts

• Structural Strain (Merton) is a theory that deviance occurs when people lack legitimate ways to achieve societal goals.
• Cooley's Looking Glass Self describes how we see ourselves based on how we think others perceive us.
• Differential association theory describes how people learn deviance from their close relationships.
• Weber described bureaucracies as rational and efficient, but potentially dehumanizing or impersonal.
• Atavisms is an outdated idea that criminals have primitive, evolutionary traits.

Leadership

• Transformative leaders inspire change, while transactional leaders focus on structure and rewards.

Miscellaneous

• Phrenology is a now-discredited theory that skull shape determines personality and intelligence.
• The Milgram Electric Shock Experiment showed people's willingness to obey authority even when harming others.
• Political power includes the ability to influence government and policies.
• Informal sanctions (social control) include non-official consequences for behavior like social disapproval or gossip.
• Current trends in financial inequality show that the gap between rich/poor continues to widen.
• Concept of food deserts are areas where healthy, affordable food is hard to access.