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Sleep and Its Stages Quiz
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Sleep and Its Stages Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is a key characteristic of the sleep stage known as REM sleep?

  • It is primarily a phase of deep, restorative sleep.
  • Muscle atonia occurs, preventing movements during dreams. (correct)
  • It is characterized by a lack of brain activity.
  • It does not involve dreaming.

    • Which sleep disorder is characterized by sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep?

  • Sleep-walking
  • Insomnia
  • Narcolepsy (correct)
  • Sleep Apnea

    • What impact can artificial light from devices have on sleep patterns?

  • It can disrupt circadian rhythms. (correct)
  • It increases the duration of REM sleep.
  • It helps to regulate body temperature.
  • It enhances the quality of napping.

    • In which part of the sleep cycle does the body experience deep restorative processes?

    <p>NREM 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the body's natural processes related to the 24-hour day and night cycle?

    <p>Circadian Rhythm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is commonly confused with nightmares?

    <p>Night Terrors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about sleep is considered accurate?

    <p>Everyone dreams every night regardless of sleep stage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group of individuals is most likely to experience increased energy as the day progresses?

    <p>Teenagers and young adults</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely consequence of sleep deprivation on overall health?

    <p>Hazardous disruption to immune function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change typically occurs in body temperature throughout the day?

    <p>Body temperature dips in the afternoon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the somatosensory cortex?

    <p>Registering and processing body touch and movement sensations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for processing auditory information?

    <p>Temporal Lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain?

    <p>Corpus Callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does brain plasticity refer to?

    <p>The brain's ability to change and reorganize itself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neuroimaging technique is most effective for examining brain function through blood flow?

    <p>fMRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Wernicke’s Area primarily assist in?

    <p>Comprehending written and spoken language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which side of the brain is typically associated with motor control of the right side of the body?

    <p>Left Hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for monitoring and regulating body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sexual responses?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the sympathetic nervous system's response?

    <p>Promotes fight-or-flight reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the amygdala in the brain?

    <p>Processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when a person becomes blind or deaf?

    <p>Unused brain areas are activated for different functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of alcohol on the cerebellum?

    <p>Impaired coordination and balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for the 'fight-or-flight' response upon detecting danger?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of the occipital lobe?

    <p>Processes visual information from the eyes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Broca's area primarily influence?

    <p>Speech production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is primarily released by the pituitary gland, and plays a critical role in physical development?

    <p>Growth hormone (GH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of damage to the reticular formation?

    <p>Potentially causes a coma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological condition do cravings typically lead to in addiction?

    <p>Persistent substance use despite consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the central nervous system is responsible for automatic survival functions?

    <p>Medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the thalamus in the brain?

    <p>Sensory information processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of glial cells in the nervous system?

    <p>Forming the myelin sheath and supporting neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is most closely associated with mood regulation?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The degeneration of the myelin sheath affects which of the following functions?

    <p>Information flow between neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does dopamine deficiency have on the motor system?

    <p>Muscle spasms and loss of motor control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the role of acetylcholine (ACh)?

    <p>Neurotransmitter that activates skeletal muscles and is involved in memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does norepinephrine have in stressful situations?

    <p>Increases alertness, blood pressure, and heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is known for its excitatory function?

    <p>Glutamate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Agonists in pharmacology serve what purpose regarding neurotransmitters?

    <p>They activate receptors and mimic neurotransmitter effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A deficit in which neurotransmitter could potentially lead to obsessive-compulsive disorder?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Substance P is primarily responsible for which of the following?

    <p>The perception of pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep stage is primarily associated with dreaming?

    <p>REM Sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does artificial light have on sleep patterns?

    <p>It can disrupt circadian rhythms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder involves episodes of stopping breathing during sleep?

    <p>Sleep Apnea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might teens and young adults experience increased energy later in the day?

    <p>They naturally align with a circadian rhythm favoring evening energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is considered a critical component of health that occurs during sleep?

    <p>REM sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by trouble falling asleep or staying asleep?

    <p>Insomnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the body's natural rhythms throughout a 24-hour cycle?

    <p>Circadian Rhythm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is primarily differentiated from nightmares?

    <p>Night Terrors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the average body temperature do throughout the day?

    <p>Increases throughout the day</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental reason why humans need sleep?

    <p>To consolidate memories and recover psychologically</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change is associated with increased cortisol levels in the body?

    <p>Increased fat production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key function does the hypothalamus serve in the body?

    <p>Monitoring body temperature and hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component primarily influences the coordination and balance in motor skills?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of developing a tolerance to a psychoactive drug?

    <p>Requirement of larger doses for similar effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the brain is primarily responsible for emotional processing, particularly fear and aggression?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of drug addiction, what is the primary cause of withdrawal symptoms?

    <p>Ever-increasing doses of the drug</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key role does the pituitary gland play in the body's hormonal system?

    <p>Controls other glands and releases hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parietal lobes in the brain?

    <p>Processing sensory signals from the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does increased ghrelin have on the body?

    <p>Increases hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is critical for comprehending written and spoken language?

    <p>Wernicke’s Area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the reticular formation?

    <p>Controlling arousal and consciousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic effect of damage to the occipital lobes?

    <p>Disruption or loss of vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true regarding the limbic system's components?

    <p>The limbic system is essential for long-term memory formation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is brain lateralization primarily concerned with?

    <p>Specialization of cognitive processes in the hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nervous system response prepares the body for fight-or-flight situations?

    <p>Sympathetic Nervous System</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of a PET scan in brain imaging?

    <p>To visualize active brain regions using radioactive glucose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the brain's ability to reorganize itself after injury?

    <p>Plasticity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure primarily enables communication between the right and left hemispheres of the brain?

    <p>Corpus Callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which areas of the brain does neurogenesis primarily occur?

    <p>Hippocampus and Olfactory Bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of brain imaging technique uses magnetic pulses to create images of brain tissue?

    <p>fMRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily released in response to pleasurable experiences and plays a key role in reward and motivation?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurological condition is primarily caused by the degeneration of the myelin sheath?

    <p>Multiple Sclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is responsible for muscle activation and memory formation?

    <p>Acetycholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is considered inhibitory and is known for its role in calming neural activity?

    <p>GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of neurons is responsible for carrying information from the sensory receptors to the brain for processing?

    <p>Sensory Neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A deficiency in which neurotransmitter is linked to symptoms of depression and anxiety?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do glial cells serve in the nervous system?

    <p>Support and protect neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Substance P plays a crucial role in which of the following bodily functions?

    <p>Pain perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What classified type of substance would block neurotransmitter receptors and inhibit their effects?

    <p>Antagonist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the physiological arousal response during stressful situations?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological process is primarily disrupted by exposure to artificial light during the night?

    <p>Circadian rhythm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sleep disorders specifically involves periodic cessation of breathing during sleep?

    <p>Sleep Apnea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which sleep stage is the body most likely to experience the deepest restorative processes?

    <p>NREM 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic that differentiates night terrors from nightmares?

    <p>Involvement of waking and confusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant reason sleep is considered a vital state of consciousness rather than a period of dormancy?

    <p>Presence of dreams</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is typically true about sleep patterns in older adults as compared to younger adults?

    <p>Older adults are morning people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep stage is associated with the highest brain activity and vivid dreaming?

    <p>REM Sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of development is linked primarily to REM sleep's critical role in health?

    <p>Memory consolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'evening-energized' typically refer to in relation to young adults?

    <p>Increased productivity at night</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common misconception about the necessity of sleep?

    <p>Sleep is purely a time for rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is primarily responsible for controlling the body’s hunger and fullness sensations?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely outcome of the brain adapting to the continuous use of psychoactive drugs?

    <p>Development of cravings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly characterizes the function of depressants?

    <p>They slow down the function of the central nervous system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Withdrawal symptoms from an addictive substance are typically described as?

    <p>Painful and extremely difficult</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does increased cortisol have on the body in relation to fat production?

    <p>Stimulates the body to produce fat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for voluntary movements?

    <p>Motor Cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is likely to impact the hippocampus as one of the first affected structures?

    <p>Alzheimer’s disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily regulated by the pituitary gland?

    <p>Hormone release and physical development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily involved in the regulation of consciousness and awareness?

    <p>Reticular Formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the role of the limbic system?

    <p>Processing emotions and long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron is responsible for carrying information from the sensory receptors to the brain for processing?

    <p>Sensory Neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of dopamine in the brain?

    <p>Involves reward and motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is known for its inhibitory function and is crucial for slowing down neuronal activity?

    <p>GABA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition is primarily caused by the degeneration of the myelin sheath?

    <p>Multiple Sclerosis (MS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is associated with the body's natural pain-reducing effects during exercise?

    <p>Endorphins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an agonist's primary function in pharmacology?

    <p>Activates receptors for neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter plays a major role in regulating mood, appetite, and sleep cycles?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could a deficit in acetylcholine (ACh) potentially lead to?

    <p>Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for the perception of pain?

    <p>Substance P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does norepinephrine have during stressful situations?

    <p>Increases alertness and heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is primarily associated with the right hemisphere of the brain?

    <p>Recognizing faces and places</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the parietal lobe play in the brain?

    <p>Managing spatial orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes Wernicke’s Area?

    <p>Handles comprehension of written and spoken language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the corpus callosum?

    <p>To facilitate communication between brain hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does neurogenesis refer to?

    <p>The creation of new neurons in specific brain areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of imaging technique is best for examining brain structure?

    <p>CT Scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the autonomic nervous system is true?

    <p>It is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily assessed by an EEG?

    <p>Brain's electrical activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is controlled by the somatic nervous system?

    <p>Voluntary muscle movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic defines brain lateralization?

    <p>The specialization of certain functions to one hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinguishing feature of night terrors compared to nightmares?

    <p>They typically involve episodes of waking in distress.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about circadian rhythms is true?

    <p>They are influenced by light exposure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by an inability to maintain adequate sleep due to frequent awakenings?

    <p>Insomnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the relationship between NREM and REM sleep?

    <p>They alternate in a fixed pattern throughout the night.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which stage of sleep do most bodily processes slow down and the body experiences significant restoration?

    <p>NREM 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are adolescents and young adults often considered evening-energized?

    <p>Their performance tends to improve as the day progresses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common impact of chronic sleep deprivation on physiological health?

    <p>Elevated stress hormone levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential effect of blue light emitted from electronic devices on sleep patterns?

    <p>It can disrupt the onset of sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sleep contribute to the process of memory consolidation?

    <p>Sleep facilitates the organization of learned information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do glial cells play in the nervous system?

    <p>Form the myelin sheath and support neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitter is primarily associated with reward and motivation?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In relation to age, how do the patterns of energy levels differ between older adults and younger individuals?

    <p>Older adults tend to have declining energy later in the day.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is NOT associated with serotonin?

    <p>Enhancement of muscle control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main consequence of a deficiency in acetylcholine (ACh)?

    <p>Possible onset of Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes an agonist from an antagonist in pharmacology?

    <p>An agonist enhances neurotransmitter function, while an antagonist blocks it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron carries outgoing information from the brain to the muscles?

    <p>Motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of norepinephrine during stressful situations?

    <p>Increases alertness and heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of endorphins in the body?

    <p>Reducing pain perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for the perception of pain?

    <p>Substance P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parietal lobes?

    <p>Sensory signal processing and spatial orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about brain lateralization?

    <p>The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does neurogenesis contribute to brain functionality?

    <p>By forming new neurons in regions crucial for memory and olfactory processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the primary auditory cortex play in the brain?

    <p>It facilitates the processing of auditory information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of damage to the occipital lobe?

    <p>Potential blindness or disruption to visual perception.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the nervous system, what is the primary function of the somatic nervous system?

    <p>Controlling voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does an EEG primarily measure?

    <p>The brain's electrical activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses?

    <p>Sympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do blind or deaf individuals compensate for their sensory loss, according to neural plasticity?

    <p>Unused brain areas become allocated for new sensory functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus regulate body temperature?

    <p>By monitoring sensory input regarding temperature and initiating appropriate responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of drug tolerance explains the need for increased dosages?

    <p>The brain chemistry adapts to diminish the drug's effects over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the amygdala in emotional processing?

    <p>To detect threats and generate the fight-or-flight response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary characteristics of depressants on the central nervous system?

    <p>They slow down the function and reduce activity in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for fine motor control?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term 'plasticity' in relation to the brain primarily refers to what?

    <p>The brain's ability to undergo physical change due to learning and experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pituitary gland within the endocrine system?

    <p>To control other glands by releasing hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the specific impact of chronic stress on the immune system?

    <p>It can suppress immune responses, making the body more susceptible to diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What specific function does the frontal lobe serve within the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Motor control and higher cognitive functions including judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the role of the cerebellum?

    <p>It is crucial for learning new motor skills and balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by a person experiencing abrupt awakenings with terror or fear?

    <p>Night Terrors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological change typically occurs in body temperature during the night?

    <p>It decreases to its lowest point.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do evening-energized individuals typically differ from morning people in terms of performance?

    <p>Their performance typically increases as the day goes on.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a known consequence of sleep deprivation on cognitive function?

    <p>Diminished attention span</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the nature of sleep?

    <p>Sleep is an altered state of consciousness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of sleep stages, which stage primarily facilitates physical restoration and healing?

    <p>NREM 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does artificial light play in the context of circadian rhythms?

    <p>It can disrupt normal sleep patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common physiological effect of REM sleep deprivation over time?

    <p>Reduced emotional stability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about teens and young adults regarding sleep patterns?

    <p>They generally need more sleep than older adults.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological phenomenon is characterized by spontaneous sleep during waking hours?

    <p>Narcolepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily involved in language comprehension?

    <p>Wernicke’s Area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does damage to the occipital lobe typically have on a person's visual capabilities?

    <p>Partial or complete blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about brain lateralization is correct?

    <p>Motor control of the left side of the body is managed by the right hemisphere.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the corpus callosum?

    <p>Communication between the right and left hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement regarding the somatosensory cortex is accurate?

    <p>It registers sensations of touch and body movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates the sympathetic nervous system from the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>The sympathetic system arouses the body during stressful situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neuronal activity does neurogenesis specifically involve?

    <p>The formation of new neurons in certain brain areas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neuroimaging techniques is most effective for assessing brain structure?

    <p>MRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes a reflex?

    <p>A reflex is a simple and automatic response by the spinal cord.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is known for its hunger-arousing effect, which increases while the level of its hunger-suppressing counterpart decreases?

    <p>Ghrelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive functions are predominantly managed by the left hemisphere of the brain?

    <p>Mathematical calculations and language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area is responsible for coordinating fine motor control, such as handwriting and balance?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When a person is addicted to a substance, what condition arises that causes them to experience intense discomfort upon cessation?

    <p>Withdrawal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the brain is crucial for processing sensory information for all senses except smell?

    <p>Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of the brain primarily dictates executive functions such as planning and reasoning?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the amygdala play in our emotional response systems?

    <p>Processing fear and aggression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the hypothalamus is responsible for regulating feelings of hunger?

    <p>Lateral hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pituitary gland, often referred to as the 'master gland'?

    <p>Controls hormone release throughout the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the phenomenon of addiction in relation to drug use?

    <p>Increased doses required for the same effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain structure is primarily involved in the fight-or-flight response when faced with danger?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?

    <p>Provide support and nourishment to neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does dopamine deficiency have on motor control?

    <p>Loss of coordination and motor control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight response?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a deficit in acetylcholine (ACh)?

    <p>Potential development of Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes an agonist from an antagonist in pharmacology?

    <p>Agonists enhance, whereas antagonists block effects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of endorphins in the human body?

    <p>Regulating pain perception and providing pain relief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is associated with excessive activity in the brain resulting in schizophrenia?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters serves an excitatory function?

    <p>Glutamate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major effect of the myelin sheath degeneration in Multiple Sclerosis (MS)?

    <p>Loss of muscle coordination and control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do sensory neurons function in the nervous system?

    <p>They carry incoming information from sensory receptors to the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sleep disorders is characterized by episodes where breathing stops during sleep?

    <p>Sleep Apnea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does REM sleep deprivation have on overall health?

    <p>Reduced cognitive function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do circadian rhythms primarily affect the human body?

    <p>Influencing sleep patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes NREM sleep stages?

    <p>NREM stages occur in a sequence and play a role in overall sleep architecture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the sleep pattern of most older adults compared to younger adults?

    <p>Morning energy peaks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is most likely to lead to sleep loss in modern society?

    <p>Excessive artificial light exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes night terrors from nightmares?

    <p>Night terrors occur during NREM sleep, while nightmares occur during REM sleep.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a feature of sleep deprivation?

    <p>Heightened alertness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily affected by the evening energetic pattern found in most teens and young adults?

    <p>Circadian rhythms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a misconception about sleep stages?

    <p>Sleep is a complete state of inactivity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is known to increase appetite by stimulating hunger?

    <p>Ghrelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a common consequence of developing tolerance to a psychoactive substance?

    <p>Need for larger doses to achieve the same effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the brain is primarily responsible for regulating emotions, especially fear?

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The hypothalamus regulates which of the following physiological processes?

    <p>Temperature and hunger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the pituitary gland in the endocrine system?

    <p>Secreting growth and reproductive hormones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential effect of damage to the reticular formation?

    <p>Difficulty achieving consciousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the cerebral cortex contribute to personality and moral judgment?

    <p>Via the prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of drug primarily slows down the function of the central nervous system?

    <p>Depressants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the hippocampus play in the brain's structure?

    <p>Storage of long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is involved in controlling voluntary movements?

    <p>Motor Cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lobe is primarily responsible for processing sensory signals related to touch, temperature, and pain from the body?

    <p>Parietal Lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principal role of Wernicke’s Area in the brain?

    <p>To comprehend spoken and written language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic is attributed to the right hemisphere of the brain?

    <p>Recognizing faces and spatial ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the corpus callosum primarily allow for?

    <p>Communication between brain hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by brain plasticity?

    <p>The brain's capability to change its organization after damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which imaging technique provides information specifically about brain function through blood flow?

    <p>fMRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does neurogenesis play in the adult brain?

    <p>Formation of new neurons in limited brain areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of the primary auditory cortex?

    <p>Processing auditory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is primarily controlled by the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Arousal and mobilization during stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when a person experiences blindness or deafness in terms of brain reorganization?

    <p>Unused areas of the brain are repurposed for other functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the regulation of mood and appetite?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does Glutamate play in the nervous system?

    <p>Excitatory neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter's deficiency is associated with Parkinson's disease?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when acetylcholine (ACh) levels are excessive?

    <p>Muscle spasms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of glial cells in the brain?

    <p>Form myelin sheath and support neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for pain perception?

    <p>Substance P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron transmits information from the sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain?

    <p>Sensory neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is released during aerobic exercise and associated with the feeling of a 'runner’s high'?

    <p>Endorphins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of motor neurons?

    <p>Transmit commands from the brain to muscles and glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disorder is associated with excessive dopamine activity in the brain?

    <p>Schizophrenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Sleep

    • Sleep is an altered state of consciousness, not a period of inactivity
    • Our brains remain active during sleep, and everyone dreams every night
    • Sleep is essential for physical and mental health
    • Sleep deprivation can lead to increased hunger, stress, and a weakened immune system

    Sleep Stages

    • There are four stages of sleep, including:
      • NREM 1 (Stage 1)
      • NREM 2 (Stage 2)
      • NREM 3 (Stage 3)
      • REM Sleep

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep
    • Sleep Apnea: Repeated pauses in breathing during sleep
    • Night Terrors: Episodes of screaming, fear, and flailing during sleep (not nightmares)
    • Sleep-walking: Walking or performing other activities during sleep
    • Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable episodes of deep sleep

    Circadian Rhythm

    • The biological clock that regulates our 24-hour sleep-wake cycle
    • Our body temperature fluctuates throughout the day, reaching its lowest point at night
    • Most teens and young adults are evening-energized, while older adults tend to be morning people
    • Artificial light from devices can disrupt our circadian rhythms

    Psychoactive Drugs

    • Chemicals that alter perceptions and moods
    • Include both legal substances (caffeine, nicotine) and illegal drugs
    • Repeated use can lead to:
      • Tolerance: Needing larger doses to achieve the desired effect
      • Dependence (addiction): Craving the drug despite negative consequences
      • Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms that occur when stopping or cutting back use

    Drug Classification

    • Depressants: Slow down the central nervous system (e.g., alcohol)
    • Hallucinogens: Alter sensory perceptions (e.g., LSD, ecstasy)
    • Stimulants: Speed up the central nervous system (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)

    The Brain

    • Contains approximately 85-100 billion neurons
    • Neurons connect to form neural networks
    • Glial cells support and protect neurons, forming the myelin sheath

    Multiple Sclerosis

    • A disease that disrupts communication in the brain and body
    • Caused by degeneration of the myelin sheath, affecting neuron transmission

    Types of Neurons

    • Sensory neurons: Carry information from the body to the brain (e.g., feeling a pin prick)
    • Motor neurons: Carry information from the brain to the body (e.g., lifting a pencil)

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons
    • Include:
      • Dopamine: Reward, motivation, muscle control
      • Serotonin: Mood, sleep, appetite
      • Norepinephrine: Arousal, "fight-or-flight" response
      • Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter
      • GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter
      • Endorphins: Pain regulation, pleasure
      • Substance P: Pain perception
      • Acetylcholine (ACh): Movement, memory

    Agonist vs. Antagonist

    • Agonist: Mimics or strengthens the effect of a neurotransmitter (e.g., morphine)
    • Antagonist: Blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter (e.g., antipsychotics)

    The Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Network of nerves connecting the CNS to the body
      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movement
      • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion
        • Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the body during stress (fight-or-flight)
        • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy

    The Brain Book (Detailed)

    • Front Cover: Title: "Brain Book," with student's name
    • Page 2 (Top Half): Old brain structures
      • Brainstem: Controls automatic survival functions
        • Medulla: Base of brainstem, regulates breathing and heartbeat
        • Pons: Connects spinal cord to brain, involved in sleep-wake cycle
        • Reticular Formation: Part of pons, controls arousal and consciousness
      • Thalamus: Sensory control center (except smell)
      • Cerebellum: Fine motor control, coordination, balance, and learning skills
    • Page 2 (Bottom Half): Limbic System
      • Amygdala: Processes emotion, especially fear and aggression
      • Hippocampus: Stores information in long-term memory
      • Hypothalamus: Regulates bodily functions (temperature, hunger, thirst, sex drive)
        • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Regulates hunger
        • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH): Regulates fullness
    • Page 3: Cerebral Cortex
      • Frontal Lobe:
        • Prefrontal Cortex: Executive functions (judgment, planning, reasoning)
        • Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movement
        • Brocas Area: Speech production
      • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory signals from the body (touch, pressure, temperature)
      • Temporal Lobe: Hearing, language comprehension, memory
        • Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes sound
        • Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension
      • Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information
    • Back Cover (Top Half): Key terms
      • Plasticity: Brain's ability to change and adapt
      • Dual processing: Two different modes of thinking (conscious and unconscious)
      • Corpus callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres
    • Back Cover (Bottom Half): Brain Scans
      • EEG (electroencephalogram): Records brain’s electrical activity
      • CT (or CAT) Scan: Examines brain structure using x-rays
      • MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging): Creates detailed images of brain anatomy
      • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows brain regions active using radioactive glucose
      • fMRI (Functional Magnetic resonance imaging): Measures blood flow and oxygen use to examine brain function

    Brain Damage

    • Plasticity: Brain's ability to reorganize after damage or adapt to new experiences
    • Response to damage:
      • Damaged neurons in the brain and spinal cord do not regenerate
      • Brain tissue can reorganize in response to damage
      • Unused brain areas can become available for new functions (e.g., blindness leading to the visual cortex being repurposed)
    • Neurogenesis: Formation of new neurons (limited to specific areas of the brain)

    Brain Imaging

    • EEG (electroencephalogram): Records brain’s electrical activity
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows which brain regions are active
    • CT (or CAT) Scan: Examines brain structure using x-rays
    • MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging): Creates detailed images of brain anatomy
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic resonance imaging): Measures blood flow and oxygen use to examine brain function

    Neural Transmission

    • Neurons are nerve cells that carry information in the brain
    • Glial cells support and protect neurons
    • Myelin sheath is a fatty covering that speeds up neural transmission
    • Sensory neurons carry information from the body to the brain
    • Motor neurons carry information from the brain to the body
    • Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons

    Nature and Nurture

    • Nature: Genetic influences on our behavior
    • Nurture: Environmental influences on our behavior
    • The interaction between both nature and nurture shapes who we are

    Sleep

    • People typically sleep less on school nights compared to weekends.
    • Modern generations may experience more sleep deprivation due to factors such as increased screen time, academic pressure, and social demands.
    • Sleep is crucial for maintaining physical and mental health.
    • Sleep helps regulate hormone levels, including those related to hunger and stress.
    • Adequate sleep supports the immune system and fights off infections.

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
    • Sleep Apnea: Repeated pauses in breathing during sleep.
    • Night Terrors: Episodes of screaming, fear, and flailing while asleep, often occurring during stage 3 sleep.
    • Sleepwalking: Walking or performing other activities while asleep.
    • Narcolepsy: Sudden, uncontrollable urge to sleep during the day.

    Circadian Rhythms

    • Biological clock that regulates bodily functions on a 24-hour cycle.
    • Body temperature, energy levels, and hormone production are influenced by circadian rhythms.
    • Teens and young adults tend to be evening-energized, while older adults are often morning people.
    • Artificial light from devices can disrupt circadian rhythms.

    Sleep Stages

    • NREM 1: Light sleep, characterized by muscle relaxation and slowing brain waves.
    • NREM 2: Deeper sleep, with more regular brain waves and reduced body activity.
    • NREM 3: Deepest sleep, known as slow-wave sleep, with very slow brain waves and reduced muscle activity.
    • REM Sleep: Rapid eye movement sleep, characterized by vivid dreams, increased brain activity, and muscle paralysis.

    Sleep Deprivation

    • Lack of sleep can disrupt hormone balance, leading to increased hunger and stress.
    • Sleep deprivation weakens the immune system.

    Psychoactive Drugs

    • Chemicals that alter perception, mood, and behavior.
    • Includes both legal substances (e.g., caffeine, nicotine) and illegal drugs.
    • Tolerance: The need for increasing doses of a drug to achieve the same effect.
    • Addiction: Compulsive drug use, despite negative consequences.
    • Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms experienced when stopping or reducing drug use.

    Classification of Drugs

    • Depressants: Slow down the central nervous system. (e.g., alcohol)
    • Hallucinogens: Alter sensory perception. (e.g., LSD, ecstasy)
    • Stimulants: Speed up the central nervous system. (e.g., caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)

    The Brain

    • The brain is the control center of the nervous system.
    • It is divided into various structures and regions, each with specialized functions.

    Brain Structures

    • Brainstem: Responsible for basic survival functions, including breathing and heart rate.
      • Medulla: Controls vital processes like breathing and heartbeat.
      • Pons: Connects the spinal cord to the brain and is involved in sleep-wake cycles.
      • Reticular Formation: A network of neurons controlling arousal and consciousness.
    • Thalamus: Sensory relay center, processing all senses except smell.
    • Cerebellum: Controls coordination, balance, and fine motor skills.
    • Limbic System: Processes emotions and memory.
      • Amygdala: Processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression.
      • Hippocampus: Involved in forming new memories.
      • Hypothalamus: Regulates basic bodily functions, including hunger, thirst, and temperature.
        • Lateral Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger.
        • Ventromedial Hypothalamus: Regulates feelings of fullness.
    • Pituitary Gland: "Master gland" that releases hormones that control other glands.

    Cerebral Cortex

    • Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions.
    • Frontal Lobe: Controls executive functions, planning, judgment, and personality.
      • Prefrontal Cortex: Responsible for complex cognitive functions.
      • Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.
      • Broca’s Area: Involved in speech production.
    • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, and pain.
      • Somatosensory Cortex: Registers touch and movement sensations.
    • Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information, language, and memory.
      • Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes sound.
      • Wernicke’s Area: Involved in language comprehension.
    • Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

    Corpus Callosum

    • Thick band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing communication between them.

    Brain Lateralization

    • The specialization of different brain functions to each hemisphere.
    • Left Hemisphere: Controls the right side of the body, involved in language, logic, math, and sequential processing.
    • Right Hemisphere: Controls the left side of the body, involved in spatial abilities, art, music, and emotional expression.

    Brain Damage and Plasticity

    • Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize following damage or experience.
    • Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, which occurs in limited areas of the brain.

    Brain Imaging Techniques

    • EEG (Electroencephalogram): Records brain electrical activity.
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows brain activity by measuring glucose metabolism.
    • CT Scan (Computed Tomography): Uses x-rays to create images of brain structures.
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates detailed images of brain structures using magnetic fields.
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.

    Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord, which control and coordinate bodily functions.
      • Brain: The control center of the nervous system.
      • Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the rest of the body, transmitting messages between them.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Network of nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body.
      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles.
      • Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates involuntary functions, such as heartbeat, digestion, and breathing.
        • Sympathetic Nervous System: Activates the body's "fight-or-flight" response during stressful situations.
        • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy.

    Neurons

    • Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information throughout the nervous system.
    • Glial Cells: Support, nourish, and protect neurons.
    • Sensory Neurons: Carry information from sensory receptors to the CNS.
    • Motor Neurons: Carry information from the CNS to muscles and glands.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons.
    • Dopamine: Involved in reward, motivation, and muscle control.
    • Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and anxiety.
    • Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal, alertness, and the "fight-or-flight" response.
    • Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter.
    • GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter.
    • Endorphins: Reduce pain and promote feelings of pleasure.
    • Substance P: Transmits pain signals.
    • Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle movement, memory, and learning.

    Agonist & Antagonist

    • Agonist: A substance that mimics or strengthens the effect of a neurotransmitter.
    • Antagonist: A substance that blocks the effects of a neurotransmitter.

    Sleep

    • Most teens and young adults have an evening energy boost, and their performance improves throughout the day
    • Most older adults are morning people, with energy declining as the day progresses
    • Artificial light from devices like phones, lamps, and other devices can negatively affect circadian rhythms
    • During sleep, the brain remains active, even in deep sleep
    • Everyone dreams every night

    Sleep Stages

    • NREM 1 (Stage 1): Light sleep, easily awakened
    • NREM 2 (Stage 2): Deeper sleep, and harder to awaken
    • NREM 3 (Stage 3): Deepest sleep, very hard to awaken
    • REM Sleep: Rapid Eye Movement, dreams, and muscle paralysis

    Effects of Sleep Loss

    • Sleep deprivation can lead to an increase in ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone, and a decrease in leptin, a hunger-suppressing hormone
    • Cortisol, a stress hormone that triggers fat production, is also increased
    • Sleep loss can suppress immune cells that fight off viruses and cancer
    • Lack of sleep can impair memory and cognitive abilities

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep
    • Sleep Apnea: Repeatedly stopping breathing during sleep
    • Night Terrors: Episodes of fear and terror while sleeping, different from nightmares
    • Sleepwalking: Performing activities while asleep
    • Narcolepsy: Sudden episodes of uncontrollable sleep

    Drugs

    • Psychoactive Drugs: Chemicals that change perceptions and moods, including caffeine and nicotine
    • Tolerance: The brain adapts to a drug's effect, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect.
    • Addiction: A compulsive craving for a drug despite adverse consequences.
    • Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms experienced when stopping or reducing drug use.

    Classification of Drugs

    • Depressants: Slow down the central nervous system.
      • Example: Alcohol
    • Hallucinogens: Alter sensory perception, changing how you see, hear, taste, smell, and feel.
      • Example: LSD, ecstasy
    • Stimulants: Speed up the central nervous system.
      • Example: Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine

    The Brain

    Old Brain Structures

    • Brain Stem (Pons and Medulla): Responsible for vital automatic functions, including breathing and heartbeat.
    • Thalamus: Acts as the brain's sensory control center, processing all senses except for smell.
    • Reticular Formation: Part of the pons, regulating arousal and consciousness. Damage can cause a coma.
    • Cerebellum: Involved in fine motor control like handwriting, coordination, and balance. Helps with learning and remembering skills like riding a bike or throwing a baseball. Alcohol significantly impacts the cerebellum.

    Limbic System

    • Amygdala: Processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression. Alerts us to danger, triggers the fight-or-flight response, helps read others' emotions, and stores memories from emotionally charged situations.
    • Hippocampus: Stores information in long-term memory and is affected early in Alzheimer's disease.
    • Hypothalamus: Regulates the autonomic nervous system, monitors and controls body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sexual responses.
      • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Regulates hunger
      • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH): Regulates fullness

    Cerebral Cortex

    • The wrinkled outer portion of the brain, containing a left and right hemisphere
    Frontal Lobe
    • Prefrontal Cortex: Responsible for executive functions, including judgment, planning, reasoning, problem-solving, moral judgment, and personality.
    • Motor Cortex: Located at the rear of the frontal lobe and controls voluntary movements.
    • Broca's Area: Involved in speech production, located in the left frontal lobe next to the motor cortex. Damage to Broca's Area can cause Broca's aphasia, leading to difficulty producing speech with simple sentences, usually limited to a noun and verb.
    Parietal Lobes
    • Processes sensory signals from the body (touch, pressure, temperature, pain).
    • Helps with spatial orientation (understanding your location and position).
    • Somatosensory Cortex: Registers and processes body touch and movement sensations, located directly behind the motor cortex.
    Temporal Lobes
    • Involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
    • Primary Auditory Cortex: Where hearing is processed.
    • Wernicke's Area: Involved in understanding written and spoken language, located in the left temporal lobe. Damage to Wernicke's Area can cause Wernicke's aphasia, leading to difficulty expressing and understanding written and spoken words/sentences.
    Occipital Lobes
    • Processes visual information from the eyes.
    • Contains neurons that are specialized to recognize lines, angles, shapes, and movement.
    • Damage can cause blindness or visual disruptions.

    Other Key Terms

    • Corpus Callosum: A large band of neural fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres, enabling communication between them.
    • Brain Lateralization: The specialization of specific neural functions or cognitive processes to one side of the brain.
      • The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body.
      • The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body.

    Brain Lateralization

    • Left Hemisphere: Controls the right side of the body, responsible for speech, language, and comprehension, math calculations, time, sequencing, and recognition of words, letters, and numbers.
    • Right Hemisphere: Controls the left side of the body, responsible for sensory processing from the left side, motor control of the left side, spatial abilities, modulating speech, recognizing faces, places, and objects, perceiving, and expressing emotion.

    Brain Damage

    • Plasticity: The brain's ability to reorganize after damage or by building new pathways through experience, allowing functions to be restored.
    • Response to Damage: While severed neurons in the brain and spinal cord do not regenerate, other brain tissue can reorganize in response to damage.
    • Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, occurring only in specific areas.

    Brain Imaging

    • EEG (electroencephalogram): Records brain electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp, helps identify seizures and abnormalities in brain activity.
    • CT Scan (Computed Tomography): Uses x-rays to examine brain structure, providing information about the shape and position of structures, helpful in diagnosing tumors.
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates a picture of the brain using magnetic pulses, showing healthy tissue, tumors, tissue degeneration, and blood clots or leaks.
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows which brain regions are active, used to detect signs of cancer, heart disease, and brain disorders. Involves injecting a small amount of radioactive glucose into a vein.
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Examines brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use in the brain, providing more precise information than PET scans.

    The Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord.

      • Brain: The control center of the nervous system.
      • Spinal Cord: A tube of nerves connecting the brain to the rest of the body, transmitting all messages to and from the brain.

    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): A network of nerves connecting the CNS to other parts of the body. Contains sensory neurons.

      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
      • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls glands and internal organs, responsible for automatic activities like heartbeat and digestion.

    Autonomic Nervous System

    • Sympathetic Nervous System: Arouses the body during stressful or dangerous situations, increasing blood pressure, heart rate, and blood sugar, preparing for fight-or-flight.
    • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy after stressful situations, reducing heart rate, decreasing blood pressure, and restoring homeostasis (stability/balance).

    Intro to Bio

    • The human brain contains approximately 85-100 billion neurons.
    • Each neuron connects with thousands of other neurons, forming neural networks.
    • Neuron: A nerve cell in the brain.

    Glial Cells

    • Support, nourish, and protect neurons, forming the myelin sheath.
    • Multiple Sclerosis (MS): A disease that disrupts the flow of information in the brain and from the brain to the body, leading to muscle control loss. It involves the degeneration of the myelin sheath, making it difficult or impossible for neurons to transmit messages.

    Types of Neurons

    • Sensory Neurons: Carry incoming information from sensory receptors in the body to the spinal cord and brain for processing. Information flows from the body to the spinal cord and then to the brain.
    • Motor Neurons: Carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. Information flows from the brain to the spinal cord and then to the muscles/glands.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical messengers transmitting messages between neurons.

    Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

    • Dopamine: Responsible for reward and motivation, muscle control. Deficits can lead to Parkinson's disease, while an excess is associated with schizophrenia (hallucinations and psychotic episodes).
    • Serotonin: Regulates mood, the sleep-wake cycle, and appetite. Deficits can result in depression, increased anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
    • Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal, the fight-or-flight response, and increases alertness, blood pressure, and heart rate.
    • Glutamate: An excitatory neurotransmitter encouraging neurons to fire.
    • GABA: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that slows things down.
    • Endorphins: Regulate pain perception, reducing pain naturally, and are linked to positive emotions (runner's high).
    • Acetylcholine (ACh): Activates skeletal muscles, carries out voluntary movements, and is involved in memory formation and learning. Deficits can contribute to Alzheimer's disease and paralysis or limited mobility.
    • Substance P: Responsible for pain perception.

    Agonist vs. Antagonist

    • Agonist: A substance that activates receptors for certain neurotransmitters, mimicking or strengthening their effects.
      • Example: Morphine
    • Antagonist: A substance that attaches to receptors for certain neurotransmitters, blocking them from having any effect (think "anti").

    Sleep and Sleep Deprivation

    • Sleep is an altered state of consciousness where the brain remains active.
    • Artificial light from devices can disrupt circadian rhythms.
    • REM sleep is crucial for health, boosting ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone, and decreasing leptin, a hunger-suppressing hormone.
    • Sleep deprivation increases cortisol, a stress hormone that promotes fat storage.
    • Sleep deprivation weakens the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and cancer.

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
    • Sleep Apnea: Breathing repeatedly stops and starts during sleep.
    • Night Terrors: Episodes of screaming, fear, and thrashing during sleep.
    • Sleepwalking: Walking or performing other activities while asleep.
    • Narcolepsy: Sudden and uncontrollable episodes of deep sleep.

    Psychoactive Drugs

    • Psychoactive drugs alter perceptions, moods, and brain chemistry.
    • Tolerance: The body adapts to the drug's effects, requiring larger doses to achieve the same effect.
    • Addiction: Cravings persist despite adverse consequences.
    • Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms experienced when stopping or reducing drug use.

    Depressants

    • Slow down the function of the central nervous system.
    • Example: Alcohol

    Hallucinogens

    • Affect senses, altering perception of sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch.
    • Examples: LSD, ecstasy

    Stimulants

    • Speed up the function of the central nervous system.
    • Examples: Caffeine, nicotine, cocaine

    The Brain

    • The brain is comprised of approximately 85-100 billion neurons.
    • Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself in response to experience or injury.
    • Dual processing: The brain processes information simultaneously on conscious and unconscious levels.
    • Corpus Callosum: A band of nerve fibres connecting the two brain hemispheres.

    Brain Structures

    • Brainstem: Controls basic survival functions. Includes the medulla and pons.
      • Medulla: Responsible for breathing, heartbeat, and other life-sustaining functions.
      • Pons: Relays information between the spinal cord and brain, involved in sleep cycles.
      • Reticular Formation: Controls arousal, consciousness, and attention. Damage can lead to coma.
    • Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex except for smell.
    • Cerebellum: Involved in fine motor control, coordination, balance, and procedural learning. Alcohol disrupts its function.
    • Limbic System: Processes emotions and memory. Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, and hypothalamus.
      • Amygdala: Processes emotions, particularly fear and aggression, and triggers the fight-or-flight response.
      • Hippocampus: Stores information in long-term memory and is affected in Alzheimer's disease.
      • Hypothalamus: Regulates the autonomic nervous system, body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sexual behavior.
        • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Regulates feelings of hunger.
        • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH): Regulates feelings of fullness.
    • Pituitary Gland: "Master gland" that controls other hormone glands.
    • Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions. Contains four lobes:
      • Frontal Lobe:** Prefrontal cortex** – executive functions, judgment, planning, reasoning, problem-solving, personality. Motor cortex – controls voluntary movement. Broca's Area – speech production.
      • Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information, spatial awareness, and body touch. Somatosensory cortex – registers body touch and movement.
      • Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information, memory, and language comprehension. Primary Auditory Cortex – processes sound. Wernicke’s Area – language comprehension.
      • Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.

    Brain Lateralization

    • Left hemisphere: Language, math, logic, and sequential tasks.
    • Right hemisphere: Spatial reasoning, facial recognition, emotional processing, and creativity.

    Brain Damage and Recovery

    • Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself after damage.
    • Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons, which is limited to specific brain areas.

    Brain Imaging Techniques

    • EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures brain electrical activity.
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows brain activity by measuring glucose use.
    • CT Scan (Computed Tomography): Uses X-rays to provide detailed images of brain structure.
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Uses magnetic fields to create images of brain tissue.
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Measures brain activity by detecting blood flow and oxygen levels.

    The Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.
      • Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the rest of the body. Carries messages between the brain and body.
      • Spinal Reflexes: Automatic responses to stimuli, controlled by the spinal cord without brain input.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Carries information to and from the CNS.
      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary muscle movement.
      • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing.
        • Sympathetic Nervous System: Arouses the body during stress, preparing for fight-or-flight.
        • Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calms the body and conserves energy after stress, returning the body to homeostasis.

    Neurons

    • Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information.
    • Glial Cells: Support and protect neurons.
    • Myelin Sheath: A fatty substance that insulates neurons, speeding up signal transmission. Multiple Sclerosis (MS): A disease that attacks the myelin sheath, disrupting nerve communication.
    • Sensory Neurons: Carry information from the senses to the brain.
    • Motor Neurons: Carry information from the brain to muscles and glands.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapses.
    • Dopamine: Regulates reward, motivation, and movement. Deficits lead to Parkinson's disease, excess linked to schizophrenia.
    • Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, appetite, and anxiety. Deficits linked to depression, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder.
    • Norepinephrine: Involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight response.
    • Glutamate: An excitatory neurotransmitter that excites neurons.
    • GABA: An inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms neurons.
    • Endorphins: Reduce pain and promote feelings of pleasure. Released during exercise.
    • Acetylcholine (ACh): Controls muscle movement and is involved in memory. Deficits linked to Alzheimer's disease and paralysis.
    • Substance P: Transmits pain signals.

    Agonist vs. Antagonist

    • Agonist: A substance that mimics or strengthens the effect of a neurotransmitter.
    • Antagonist: A substance that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter.

    Sleep

    • Average sleep duration varies between school nights and weekends
    • Artificial light from devices can disrupt circadian rhythm
    • Sleep is an altered state of consciousness, not complete shutdown
    • Brain remains active during sleep
    • Everyone dreams nightly
    • Sleep is crucial for health.

    Sleep Stages

    • NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) has 3 stages:
      • Stage 1: Light sleep
      • Stage 2: Deeper sleep
      • Stage 3: Deepest sleep, essential for physical restoration
    • REM (Rapid Eye Movement): Important for memory consolidation and emotional processing

    Sleep Deprivation

    • Decreases leptin (hunger-suppressing hormone) and increases ghrelin (hunger-arousing hormone) leading to increased appetite
    • Elevates cortisol (stress hormone) linked to fat production.
    • Suppresses immune cells

    Psychoactive Drugs

    • Chemicals that alter perceptions and moods
    • Includes legal substances like caffeine and nicotine
    • Tolerance: Brain adapts to drug effects, requiring higher doses
    • Addiction: Cravings persist despite negative consequences
    • Withdrawal: Physical and mental symptoms from stopping drug use

    The Brain Book

    • A guide to understanding the brain's structure
    • Front Cover: Title: "Brain Book," with student's name
    • Page 2:
      • Old brain structures:
        • Brainstem: Automatic survival functions (pons and medulla)
        • Thalamus: Sensory control center except for smell
        • Reticular formation: Controls arousal and consciousness
        • Cerebellum: Fine motor control, coordination, balance, and learning
    • Page 2 (continued):
      • Limbic system:
        • Amygdala: Processes emotions (fear, aggression)
        • Hippocampus: Stores information into long-term memory
        • Hypothalamus: Regulates autonomic nervous system (body temperature, thirst, hunger, sexual responses)
    • Page 3:
      • Cerebral cortex:
        • Frontal lobe: Executive functions (judgment, planning, reasoning, problem solving), personality
        • Parietal lobe: Processes sensory signals from the body
        • Temporal lobe: Processes auditory information, language processing, and memory - Occipital lobe: Processes visual information
    • Back Cover:
      • Other key terms:
        • Plasticity: Brain's ability to change and reorganize
        • Dual processing: Two systems of thinking (conscious and unconscious)
        • Corpus callosum: Connects the left and right hemispheres
      • Scans:
        • EEG (Electroencephalogram): Measures brain's electrical activity
        • CT (or CAT) Scan: Examines brain structure using x-rays
        • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates detailed images of brain using magnetic pulses
        • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows which brain regions are active
        • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Examines brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use

    Brainstem

    • Medulla: Controls life-sustaining processes like breathing and heartbeat
    • Pons: Connects spinal cord to brain, involved in automatic processes like sleep-wake cycle
    • Reticular Formation: Part of the pons that controls arousal and consciousness

    Thalamus

    • Brain's sensory control center
    • Processes all senses except smell

    Cerebellum

    • Fine motor control, coordination, posture, balance
    • Learning and remembering skills (ex: riding a bike)
    • Alcohol affects the cerebellum, impacting coordination and balance

    Limbic System

    • Amygdala:
      • Processes emotion, especially fear and aggression
      • Triggers fight-or-flight response in response to threats
      • Reads others' emotions
      • Stores memories from highly emotional situations
    • Hippocampus:
    • Stores information in long-term memory
    • Vulnerable to Alzheimer's disease
    • Hypothalamus:
      • Regulates autonomic nervous system
      • Monitors and regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sexual responses
      • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH):Regulates feelings of hunger
      • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH): Regulates feelings of fullness
    • Pituitary Gland:
      • Controlled by the hypothalamus
      • Releases hormones, known as the "master gland"
      • Releases growth hormone (GH) that stimulates physical development
      • Releases oxytocin involved in childbirth, nursing, and sexual attraction

    Cerebral Cortex

    • Wrinkled outer portion of the brain
    • Contains left and right hemispheres
    • Frontal lobe:
      • Prefrontal cortex:
        • Executive functions (judgment, planning, reasoning, problem solving)
        • Moral Judgment
        • Personality
      • Motor cortex: Controls voluntary movements
      • Brocas Area: Involved in speech production
    • Parietal lobe:
      • Processes sensory signals from the body (touch, pressure, temp, pain)
      • Helps with spatial orientation
      • Somatosensory cortex: Registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
    • Temporal lobe:
      • Involved in hearing, language processing, and memory
      • Involved in the storage of long-term memories
      • Primary Auditory Cortex: Processes hearing
      • Wernicke's Area: Comprehension and understanding of written and spoken language
    • Occipital lobes:
      • Processes visual information from the eyes
      • Contains neurons specialized for recognizing lines, angles, shapes, and movement
      • Damage can cause blindness or vision disruption

    Corpus Callosum

    • Large band of neural fibers that connects the right and left hemispheres
    • Allows hemispheres to communicate

    Brain Lateralization

    • Functions and cognitive processes are specialized to one side of the brain
    • Right hemisphere:
      • Motor control of left side of body
      • Spatial ability
      • Recognizing faces
      • Perceiving and expressing emotion
    • Left Hemisphere:
      • Sensory processing from left side of the body
      • Motor control of right side of the body
      • Speech, language, and comprehension
      • Math calculations

    Brain Damage

    • Plasticity: Brain's ability to reorganize after damage or build new pathways
    • Neurogenesis: Formation of new neurons (occurs in memory and smell)

    Brain Imaging

    • EEG (electroencephalogram): Records brain's electrical activity
    • CT (or CAT) Scan: Examines brain structure using x-rays
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Creates detailed images of brain using magnetic pulses
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): Shows which brain regions are active
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Examines brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use

    Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS):
      • Brain
      • Spinal Cord: connects the brain to the rest of the body, transmits messages
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
      • Network of nerves that connects the CNS to other parts of the body
      • Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles
      • Autonomic Nervous System: Controls glands and internal organs
        • Sympathetic: Arouses the body during stressful scenarios (fight-or-flight)
        • Parasympathetic: Calms the body and conserves energy

    Biology and Psychology Connection

    • "Everything psychological is simultaneously biological"
    • Understanding essential biological processes, like the brain and nervous system, is crucial for understanding psychology

    Neural Transmission

    • Human brain contains 85-100 billion neurons
    • Neurons connect with thousands of other neurons, forming neural networks
    • Glial cells provide support, nutrition, and protection for neurons
    • Multiple Sclerosis: Disrupts the transmission of messages between neurons and body (degeneration of the myelin sheath)

    Sensory Neurons

    • Carry incoming information FROM the body TO the brain and spinal cord

    Motor Neurons

    • Carry outgoing information FROM the brain and spinal cord TO the muscles and glands

    Neurotransmitters

    • Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons
    • Dopamine:
      • Reward and motivation
      • Muscle control
      • Deficit linked to Parkinson's disease
      • Surplus linked to Schizophrenia
    • Serotonin:
      • Regulates mood
      • Involved in sleep/wake cycle
      • Regulates appetite
      • Deficit linked to depression, increased anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorder
    • Norepinephrine:
      • Involved in arousal and fight-or-flight
      • Increases alertness, blood pressure, and heart rate
    • Glutamate:
      • Excitatory neurotransmitter
      • Encourages neurons to fire
    • GABA:
      • Inhibitory neurotransmitter
      • Slows things down
    • Endorphins:
      • Regulates pain perception
      • Released during aerobic exercise
      • Linked to positive emotions
    • Substance P:
      • Responsible for the perception of pain
    • Acetylcholine (ACh):
      • Movement
      • Involved in memory
      • Deficit linked to Alzheimer's disease and paralysis
      • Surplus linked to violent muscle contractions

    Agonist vs Antagonist

    • Agonist: Activates receptors for neurotransmitters and mimics their effect
    • Antagonist: Blocks neurotransmitters from having an effect

    Sleep

    • Sleep is an altered state of consciousness, where the brain is still active.
    • Everyone dreams every night.
    • Artificial light from cell phones and other devices can interfere with circadian rhythms, which are the body's natural 24 hour cycle.
    • Sleep deprivation increases hunger-arousing hormones and decreases hunger-suppressing ones.
    • Sleep deprivation increases stress hormones and suppresses immune cells.

    Sleep Stages

    • Stages include NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, and REM sleep.
    • REM sleep is critical to health.

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: difficulty falling or staying asleep
    • Sleep Apnea: temporary stop breathing during sleep.
    • Night Terrors: NOT nightmares.
    • Sleep-walking
    • Narcolepsy: falling asleep spontaneously.

    Psychoactive Drugs

    • Psychoactive drugs change perceptions and moods.
    • Psychoactive drugs include both legal and illegal substances.
    • Tolerance: the brain adapts to the drug effect, requiring larger doses to experience the same effect.
    • Addiction: cravings lead to continued use despite adverse consequences.
    • Withdrawal: physical and mental symptoms when suddenly stopping or cutting back use of an addictive substance.

    Classification of Drugs

    • Depressants: slow down the central nervous system (ex. Alcohol).
    • Hallucinogens: affect senses and change the way you see, hear, taste, smell, and feel (ex. LSD, Ecstasy).
    • Stimulants: speed up the central nervous system (ex. Caffeine, Nicotine, Cocaine).

    Brain

    • The brain contains approximately 85-100 billion neurons.
    • Neurons connect with thousands of other neurons forming neural networks.
    • Glial cells form the myelin sheath and support neurons.

    Brain Structures

    • Brainstem: responsible for automatic survival functions.
      • Medulla: responsible for life-maintaining processes (breathing, heartbeat).
      • Pons: connects the spinal cord to the brain, involved in the sleep-wake cycle.
      • Reticular Formation: controls arousal and consciousness.
    • Thalamus: brain's sensory control center (all senses except smell).
    • Cerebellum: involved in fine motor control, coordination, posture and balance.
    • Limbic System: processes emotion and long-term memory.
      • Amygdala: involved in processing emotion, specifically fear and aggression.
      • Hippocampus: involved in long-term memory and one of the first areas affected by Alzheimer's.
      • Hypothalamus: controls the autonomic nervous system, monitors and regulates body temperature, thirst, hunger, and sexual responses.
        • Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): regulates feelings of hunger.
        • Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VH): regulates feelings of fullness.
    • Pituitary Gland: controlled by the hypothalamus, is the "master gland" that tells other glands to release hormones.
    • Cerebral Cortex: wrinkled outer portion of the brain.
      • Frontal Lobe: contains:
        • Prefrontal Cortex: executive functions, judgment, planning, reasoning, problem solving, moral judgment, personality.
        • Motor Cortex: controls voluntary movements.
        • Brocas Area: involved in speech production.
      • Parietal Lobes: processes sensory signals from the body (touch, pressure, temperature, pain).
      • Temporal Lobes: involved in hearing, language processing, and memory.
      • Occipital Lobes: processes visual information.
    • Corpus Callosum: connects the right and left hemispheres, allowing them to communicate.

    Brain Lateralization

    • Left Hemisphere: controls the right side of the body, language, speech, math calculations, time and sequencing.
    • Right Hemisphere: controls the left side of the body, spatial ability, modulating speech, recognizing faces, places, and objects, perceiving and expressing emotion.

    Brain Damage and Plasticity

    • Plasticity: the brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
    • Neurogenesis: the formation of new neurons, occurs only in two areas of the brain.

    Brain Imaging

    • EEG (Electroencephalogram): records brain's electrical activity.
    • PET Scan (Positron Emission Tomography): shows which brain regions are active.
    • CT Scan (Computed Tomography): examines brain structure using x-rays.
    • MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): assembles a picture of the brain using magnetic pulses.
    • fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): examines brain function by measuring blood flow and oxygen use.

    Nervous System

    • Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord.
      • Spinal Cord: connects the brain to the rest of the body, all messages to and from the brain pass through the spinal cord.
    • Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): network of nerves that connects the CNS to the body.
      • Somatic Nervous System: controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles.
      • Autonomic Nervous System: controls glands and internal organs.
        • Sympathetic Nervous System: arouses the body during stressful or dangerous situations.
        • Parasympathetic Nervous System: calms the body and conserves energy after stress.

    Bases and Neural Transmission

    • The human brain contains 85-100 billion neurons.
    • Neuron: nerve cell in the brain.
    • Glial Cells: support neurons.
    • Sensory Neurons: carry incoming information from the body to the brain.
    • Motor Neurons: carry outgoing information from the brain to the body.
    • Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers that send messages between neurons.
      • Dopamine: reward, motivation, muscle control.
      • Serotonin: mood regulation, sleep/wake cycle, appetite regulation.
      • Norepinephrine: arousal, fight-or-flight response.
      • Glutamate: excitatory neurotransmitter.
      • GABA: inhibitory neurotransmitter.
      • Endorphins: regulate pain perception.
      • Substance P: responsible for pain perception.
      • Acetylcholine (ACh): movement, memory.
    • Agonist: activates receptors for certain neurotransmitters.
    • Antagonist: blocks receptors for certain neurotransmitters.

    Nature vs. Nurture

    • Everything psychological is simultaneously biological.

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