Self: Western vs. Eastern Thought

Understanding the Self: Western Thought

• Centers on the individuality of the psyche or soul.
• The individual self struggles to reconcile the connection between the ideal self and the limited self.
• Understanding the self is a lifelong pursuit of self-perfection.
• The development of the self from conception to death is important.
• Purpose of the self is to live the ideals of the soul.
• Greeks refer to self-perfection as arete, meaning ultimate goodness, perfection, or excellence.

Understanding the Self: Eastern Thought

• Hinduism:
  • A polytheistic religion from India.
  • The true self (atman) is unchanging and identical to Brahman, the ultimate reality, according to the Advaita monistic doctrine.
  • True selfhood is achieved by surrendering to the all-encompassing Brahman.
• Buddhism:
  • Originated in India.
  • Teachings are based on Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha or the enlightened one.
  • Everything is in a constant state of change, and no permanent self exists.
  • The self is seen as an evolution and transformation of inner consciousness.
• Confucianism:
  • Confucius emphasized society's primacy over the individual.
  • The self is a person within society embodying refinement and compassion.
  • Ideal person, or "junzi" (gentleman or superior man), is formed through education under a virtuous teacher.
  • The junzi embodies virtues like learning, manners, and the ability to govern wisely.
  • It emphasizes Li, referring to refined rituals honoring ancestors.
  • It highlights Ren, representing genuine compassion for others.
• Taoism:
  • A Chinese counterculture movement that advocates for a simple, spontaneous life in harmony with nature, free from social constraints and ambitions.
  • It values individuality and freedom, rejecting hierarchical views of self, society, and cosmos.
  • The self is one of the Tao's (the cosmos) many manifestations.
  • It emphasizes the wisdom of knowing others and oneself, suggesting a distinction between self and others.
  • Taoism promotes selflessness, leading to the acceptance of life and death and dissolution of the distinction between "I" and "other."
• Islamic Traditions/Sufism:
  • Shares a similar perspective with Judeo-Christian philosophies by emphasizing the importance of community above the individual.
  • Islam also highlights the oneness of Allah and Islam's inclusivity as a universal religion.

Key Differences

• Eastern traditions involve communal and spiritual constructs.
• Western traditions developed a construct of being individualistic, self-reliant, rational, and scientific.

Individualism vs. Collectivism

• Geert Hofstede coined individualism-collectivism as a dimension of culture in 1980, which Harry Triandis further developed with Michele Gelfand.

Individualism Defined

• Societies where relationships are loosely connected and everyone is expected to look after themselves and their immediate family.
• Observed mainly in Western cultures.

Collectivism Defined

• Societies where relationship bonds within a group are strongly cultivated since birth.
• People are expected to loyally continue protecting the group's welfare throughout their lifetime.
• Observed mainly in Eastern cultures.

Attributes of Individualism

• View of Self: Independent from others, more or less stable.
• Goals: Individual goals are prioritized.
• Behavior: Determined by attitudes, personal needs, rights, and contracts.
• Relationships: Small, private relationships are maintained, which can be unsatisfactory.
• Cognitions: Analytic, linear, and dualistic; attention focused on objects, details, and categories.
• Attributions: Dispositional; traits and attributes determine events.
• Norms: Competition, self-enhancement, self-expression.
• Emotions: Disengaged from others.

Attributes of Collectivism

• View of Self: Interdependent with others, self may change depending on situations.
• Goals: Group goals are prioritized.
• Behavior: Determined by norms, obligations, and duties.
• Relationships: Communal relationships are most frequent; individuals stay even when relationships are unpleasant.
• Cognitions: Holistic and dialectical; attention focused on themes and contextual information; seemingly opposite forces may coexist.
• Attributions: Situational; external forces, context, and situations determine events.
• Norms: Cooperation; group loyalty, and social order.
• Emotions: Engaged and moderate in expression.

Vertical and Horizontal Dimensions (Triandis, 1995)

• Both individualism and collectivism can be horizontal and vertical.
• Self cannot be entirely individualistic/private or entirely collectivistic.
• The Self remains in constant interaction with the context the Self is a part of.

Vertical Collectivism

• Self is part of the collective/group.
• Believes in and accepts inequality and hierarchy within the collective.

Horizontal Collectivism

• Self is part of the collective.
• Perceives all members of the collective to be equal.

Vertical Individualism

• Self is autonomous/independent.
• Acknowledges that inequality will exist among individuals and accepts this inequality.

Horizontal Individualism

• Self is autonomous.
• Believes that equality among individuals is the ideal.