Scientific Method and Open Science Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What distinguishes a theory from a hypothesis?

  • A hypothesis is broader than a theory.
  • A theory can be proven while a hypothesis cannot.
  • A hypothesis is based on extensive data, whereas a theory is not.
  • A theory is a tested explanation while a hypothesis is a prediction. (correct)

What is the primary goal of the open science movement?

  • To increase competition between researchers.
  • To limit access to scientific research.
  • To focus solely on quantitative research methods.
  • To promote transparency and accessibility in research. (correct)

What does a replication study aim to accomplish?

  • To introduce new variables to the original study.
  • To enhance the complexity of data analysis.
  • To only provide qualitative insights.
  • To confirm or refute the findings of the original study. (correct)

Which statement about peer-reviewed papers is true?

<p>They undergo evaluation by experts before publication. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is social desirability bias in self-report measures?

<p>An inclination to respond in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is random sampling important in research?

<p>It enhances the generalizability of study findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines a mediator in research?

<p>A variable through which an independent variable affects a dependent variable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do the three types of validity in research assess?

<p>The reliability, accuracy, and relevance of study results. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between generalization and discrimination in learning?

<p>Generalization involves responding to similar stimuli, while discrimination involves responding differently to distinct stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best explains why blocking occurs in classical conditioning?

<p>Prior conditioning prevents new associations from forming. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason that drug tolerance develops, in relation to conditioning?

<p>Conditioning creates an association between the drug and the environment, leading to tolerance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what does the 'ABC' model signify?

<p>Antecedent, Behavior, Consequence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of reinforcement schedule is characterized by delivering reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses?

<p>Variable-ratio schedule. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about primary and secondary reinforcers is true?

<p>Primary reinforcers satisfy basic biological drives, whereas secondary reinforcers acquire their value through learning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does latent learning involve, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

<p>Latent learning occurs without reinforcement and is not immediately apparent, while classical conditioning involves direct associations between stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of social learning theory was exemplified in the 'Bobo Doll' study?

<p>Mimicry of violent behavior observed in others. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is REM behavior disorder and why does it occur?

<p>It involves acting out dreams and results from a failure to inhibit motor activity during REM sleep. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that dreams are a way for the brain to make sense of random neural activity?

<p>Activation-synthesis hypothesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term sleep deprivation refer to?

<p>A lack of sleep that can affect cognitive and physiological functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are iconic and echoic memory?

<p>Types of short-term memory; iconic for visual and echoic for auditory information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking in terms of memory?

<p>The process of dividing information into smaller, manageable pieces to enhance recall. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia?

<p>Anterograde amnesia affects memory leading to new information while retrograde affects past memories. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of REM rebound?

<p>An increase in REM sleep after periods of sleep deprivation. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes explicit memory from implicit memory?

<p>Explicit memory involves facts and information, while implicit memory involves skills and tasks. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes self-awareness?

<p>The capacity to reflect on oneself and recognize one's own emotions and thoughts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately differentiates between awareness and arousal?

<p>Awareness involves cognitive processes, while arousal is associated with physiological activation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the spotlight effect refer to in the context of consciousness?

<p>The phenomenon where individuals overestimate the degree to which others notice their behavior (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Inattentional blindness refers to what phenomenon?

<p>The failure to notice an unexpected stimulus when attention is focused on a particular task (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best outlines the primary difference between Freud's and modern psychological views on consciousness?

<p>Freud emphasized the dominance of the unconscious over consciousness, whereas modern views stress a more balanced interaction between them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary insight gained from EEG studies regarding conscious awareness?

<p>EEG studies highlight the neural correlates that are specific to states of consciousness and awareness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which definition best describes the cocktail party phenomenon?

<p>The capacity to detect one's name mentioned in a noisy environment despite being distracted (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the default mode network (DMN)?

<p>It supports self-referential thought and mind wandering. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the five-factor model primarily assess?

<p>Dimensions of personality traits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do researchers often study to estimate heritability?

<p>Twin studies (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does rejection sensitivity refer to?

<p>A tendency to expect and overreact to rejection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do psychologists differentiate between attachment styles?

<p>Through observational behavior classifications (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main principle of the diathesis-stress model?

<p>Genetic predispositions interact with environmental stressors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is self-verification theory focused on?

<p>The motivation to maintain self-consistency (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the nature of comorbidity?

<p>The presence of multiple disorders concurrently (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of attachment is characterized by a strong fear of abandonment?

<p>Anxious attachment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term fundamental attribution error refer to?

<p>Overemphasizing personality traits in others' behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes self-serving bias?

<p>Taking credit for successes while blaming failures on external factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept explains the tendency to assume others share our opinions and beliefs?

<p>False consensus effect (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Cognitive dissonance theory suggests that people experience discomfort when they hold conflicting beliefs. Which method is commonly used to reduce this discomfort?

<p>Changing one's beliefs to align with behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Impression management strategies are used primarily to influence how one is perceived by others. Which strategy aims to promote oneself positively by highlighting achievements?

<p>Self-promotion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Ikea effect in the context of cognitive dissonance?

<p>Increasing the value of items one has assembled oneself (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of groupthink, which factor increases the likelihood of poor decision-making?

<p>Strong cohesive groups with high loyalty (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the phenomenon where individuals feel less responsible to act in an emergency when others are present?

<p>Bystander effect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the smallest change in stimulus intensity that can be detected?

<p>Just-noticeable difference (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Weber’s law state about the relationship between stimulus intensity and just-noticeable differences?

<p>The ratio of change is constant across different intensities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the function of rods in the visual system?

<p>They are sensitive to brightness but not color. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of feature detectors in visual processing?

<p>To process simple visual patterns and shapes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the ventral 'what' pathway and the dorsal 'where' pathway in visual processing?

<p>The ventral pathway processes visual details while the dorsal pathway focuses on spatial awareness. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do the terms liberal and conservative bias refer to in signal detection theory?

<p>The inclination to report perceived signals versus the actual stimuli present. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the visual association cortex?

<p>To integrate and interpret complex visual stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of top-down processing as demonstrated by illusory contours?

<p>Visual stimuli are interpreted based on past experiences and context. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the placebo effect primarily demonstrate?

<p>The impact of psychological factors on physical health (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of double-blind procedures in experiments?

<p>To reduce bias by keeping both researchers and participants unaware of group assignments (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is internal validity concerned with?

<p>The accuracy of the conclusions drawn from the study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean if a finding is statistically significant?

<p>The probability of the results occurring by chance is very low (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which measure describes the average value in a data set?

<p>Mean (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is external validity primarily concerned with?

<p>The ability to apply findings to broader contexts or populations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does differential attrition refer to in research studies?

<p>Loss of participants in a non-random manner that could bias results (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

<p>To review research proposals for ethical compliance and participant safety (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes an agonist from an antagonist in pharmacology?

<p>An agonist enhances receptor activity while an antagonist blocks it. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does oxytocin play in human behavior?

<p>It promotes social bonding and reproductive behaviors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is primarily responsible for involuntary functions?

<p>Autonomic nervous system (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does contralateral organization refer to in the context of the brain?

<p>Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of knocking down or knocking out a gene?

<p>To observe the effects on an organism's phenotype (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major limitation of genome-wide association studies (GWAS)?

<p>They cannot establish causal relationships (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical period in development?

<p>A specific window of time during which certain experiences must occur for development to proceed normally. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is phantom limb syndrome an example of?

<p>Misinterpretation of sensory information by the brain. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model emphasizes the interaction between genetic predispositions and environmental influences on behavior?

<p>Diathesis-stress model (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of neurotransmitters in the nervous system?

<p>To transmit signals across synapses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the primary somatosensory and motor cortices exhibit topographical organization?

<p>Areas are allocated based on the physical size of body parts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes primary cortex from association cortex?

<p>Primary cortex processes sensory information while association cortex integrates it. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes epigenetic changes?

<p>Reversible modifications that affect gene expression (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does behavioral genetics primarily study?

<p>The inheritance of specific psychological traits (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters is primarily associated with mood regulation?

<p>Serotonin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'myelin sheath' refer to in neuronal function?

<p>A fatty insulating layer surrounding axons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of mind wandering?

<p>It often leads to increased creativity. (A), It can occur even during mundane activities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon illustrates one of the challenges involved in studying consciousness?

<p>Inattentional blindness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the preconscious mind in Freud's theory?

<p>It includes thoughts that can easily become conscious. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the spotlight effect in social psychology?

<p>Believing others notice us more than they actually do. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a benefit of mind wandering?

<p>Enhanced problem-solving abilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain phenomenon is characterized by an inability to perceive stimuli on one side of space?

<p>Spatial hemi-neglect (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the role of subliminal perception in consciousness?

<p>It involves processing stimuli below conscious awareness. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does change blindness reveal about human perception?

<p>Individuals can rarely notice changes in their environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of cognitive dissonance theory?

<p>It suggests that inconsistency between beliefs can cause psychological discomfort. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is most likely to lead to groupthink?

<p>High levels of group cohesion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the tendency for individuals to perceive their own actions in a favorable light, often attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external ones?

<p>Self-serving bias. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the false consensus effect refer to?

<p>The belief that one's personal opinions are shared by a majority of others. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of impression management strategies?

<p>To manipulate perceptions of oneself to others. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept is illustrated by Festinger & Carlsmith's (1959) research in relation to cognitive dissonance?

<p>Low external rewards can create a sense of internal conflict. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of spreading the alternatives refer to in the context of cognitive dissonance?

<p>The act of comparing the benefits of rejected options to reinforce chosen alternatives. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the diffusion of responsibility phenomenon?

<p>The tendency for individuals to feel less personal obligation to act when others are present. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does signal detection theory distinguish between a liberal and conservative bias?

<p>Liberal bias results in more false alarms, whereas conservative bias decreases them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Weber’s law state regarding just-noticeable differences?

<p>The just-noticeable difference is proportional to the initial stimulus intensity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of rods in the human eye?

<p>To enable vision in low-light conditions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of rhodopsin in the visual process?

<p>It aids in the dark adaptation process by changing sensitivity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory describes how color vision is processed by the visual system?

<p>The trichromatic theory explains color perception using three types of receptors. (B), Opponent-process theory asserts that colors are perceived as pairs that inhibit each other. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the concept of visual agnosia?

<p>It is the inability to recognize familiar objects or faces despite intact vision. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do binocular cues assist in depth perception?

<p>They are based on the convergence of the eyes when focusing on a close object. (C), They utilize the differences in images received by the two eyes. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of feature detectors in the visual system?

<p>They are specialized neurons that respond to specific visual stimuli, such as lines or edges. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of REM sleep that contributes to its nickname 'paradoxical sleep'?

<p>High brain activity resembling wakefulness (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories suggests that dreaming helps process emotions?

<p>Information processing theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during REM rebound after a period of sleep deprivation?

<p>Extended amounts of REM sleep in following sleep cycles (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term defines sleep disturbances that can occur during REM, such as acting out dreams?

<p>REM behavior disorder (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter are hallucinogens chemically similar to?

<p>Serotonin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key purpose of hypnosis in therapeutic settings?

<p>To facilitate deep relaxation and focus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the multistore model of memory, which stage is primarily responsible for retaining information for immediate use?

<p>Working memory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the difference between manifest and latent content in Freud’s theory of dreaming?

<p>Manifest content reflects conscious wishes; latent content is its underlying meaning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the immediacy of the victim impact obedience levels in a study?

<p>Closer proximity to the victim generally increases obedience. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do wanting and liking differ as constructs in psychology?

<p>Wanting refers to the anticipation of a reward, while liking is the enjoyment from receiving it. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three components of an attitude?

<p>Emotion, behavior, and cognition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does alliesthesia refer to in psychological terms?

<p>The phenomenon where a stimulus is perceived differently depending on the internal state of an individual. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the central route to attitude change in the elaboration likelihood model?

<p>Change is based on careful consideration and deep processing. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Harlow's understanding of attachment differ from traditional behaviorists?

<p>Harlow emphasized the role of affectional bonding rather than just reinforcement through rewards. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is internalization in the context of social influence?

<p>Accepting new information as part of personal belief systems. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary idea behind Bowlby’s attachment theory?

<p>Attachment is an instinctual behavior meant for survival and development. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hypothalamus play in regulating appetite?

<p>It integrates signals related to hunger and satiety to regulate food intake. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes compliance in social behavior?

<p>A public agreement without private acceptance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following additions is true regarding achievement motivation?

<p>Achievement motivation can drive individuals to set and meet personal goals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of automatic mimicry in social interactions?

<p>It enhances social bonds and rapport. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the norm of reciprocity in social psychology?

<p>An obligation to return a favor even without request. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do glucostatic and lipostatic hypotheses explain hunger regulation?

<p>Both hypotheses suggest that hunger is influenced through different metabolic signals in the body. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes normative social influence from informational social influence?

<p>Normative influence leads to public acceptance while informational influence leads to private acceptance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does heritability estimate in psychological research?

<p>The genetic contribution to individual differences (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes person x situation interaction?

<p>The interplay between individual characteristics and situational context (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of self-concept in psychology?

<p>The set of beliefs about oneself (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is characterized by a strong fear of abandonment?

<p>Anxious attachment (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sociometer theory primarily concerned with?

<p>Measuring personal self-esteem as a social indicator (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following defines comorbidity in psychological disorders?

<p>The simultaneous occurrence of multiple disorders (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What practice is typically involved in clinical assessment of psychological disorders?

<p>Combining interviews, tests, and observations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the false consensus effect?

<p>The assumption that others share the same opinions as oneself. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes effort justification?

<p>Rationalizing commitments to reduce feelings of dissonance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cognitive dissonance theory primarily concerned with?

<p>The discomfort caused by holding conflicting beliefs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy is NOT an impression management technique?

<p>Groupthink (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes group polarization?

<p>Enhancement of group members' pre-existing beliefs. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'spreading the alternatives' refer to?

<p>The tendency to minimize the downsides of a chosen option. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of social judgments, which of the following is a common factor that can lead to error?

<p>Too much reliance on personal beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is confirmation bias?

<p>The tendency to search for information that supports one's existing beliefs. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to acquiring knowledge, involving making observations, forming hypotheses, testing hypotheses through experimentation, and drawing conclusions from the results.

Replication Study

A study that attempts to duplicate the results of a prior study to see if the same results can be obtained under similar conditions.

Meta-analysis

A statistical method that combines results of multiple studies to produce a combined summary of findings.

Peer-Reviewed Paper

A paper that has been evaluated by experts in the field before publication to ensure its quality and validity.

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Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher to see its effect on another variable.

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Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured and expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

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Random Assignment

Assigning participants to different groups in a study randomly to reduce bias and ensure groups are similar

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Correlation vs. Causation

Correlation shows a relationship, but does not prove causation. Causation requires showing that one variable causes a change in another.

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Generalization

Responding similarly to a range of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

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Discrimination

Responding differently to similar stimuli based on prior learning, only reacting to specific stimuli.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences of actions; behaviors are strengthened or weakened by consequences.

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Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by pleasurable consequences are more likely to be repeated.

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Reinforcement

Increasing the likelihood of a behavior by adding or taking away something after a specific behavior.

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Punishment

Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior by adding or taking away something after a specific behavior.

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Shaping

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior to teach a complex behavior.

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Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

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Consciousness Definition

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment, including our thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions.

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Synesthesia

A neurological phenomenon where stimulation of one sense automatically triggers an experience in another sense.

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Awareness vs. Arousal

Awareness is your subjective experience, while arousal is your physiological state of wakefulness. Awareness requires arousal but arousal doesn't guarantee awareness.

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Cocktail Party Phenomenon

The ability to focus one's attention on a specific stimulus while filtering out background stimuli.

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Inattentional Blindness

Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.

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Mind Wandering

The process of shifting one's attention away from a task or current focus to other thoughts or ideas.

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Subliminal Perception

The perception of a stimulus below the threshold of conscious awareness.

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Automaticity

The ability to perform tasks or actions effortlessly and without conscious awareness.

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REM Sleep

A stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis. Brain activity resembles that of wakefulness, but the body is immobile.

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Paradoxical Sleep

Another name for REM sleep, highlighting the paradox of a brain that's active like wakefulness but a body that's paralyzed.

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REM Behavior Disorder

A sleep disorder where muscle paralysis during REM sleep is absent, leading to acting out dreams. This can result in physical harm to oneself or others.

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Sleep Deprivation

A state of insufficient sleep, leading to negative consequences for mental and physical health, including impaired cognitive function, mood swings, and increased risk of illness.

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REM Rebound

Increased duration and intensity of REM sleep following a period of sleep deprivation.

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Freud's Theory of Dreaming

Psychoanalytic theory proposing that dreams express unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts. The manifest content is the dream as remembered, while the latent content represents the underlying meaning.

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Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

Theory suggesting that dreams are random neural activity in the brain during REM sleep, interpreted by the mind into a narrative.

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Hypnotic Analgesia

Pain relief achieved through hypnosis, suggesting a powerful mind-body connection in managing pain.

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Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining someone's behavior. We assume people's actions reflect their personality even if external circumstances might explain it.

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Self-Serving Attributions

The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (our abilities) and our failures to external factors (bad luck) to protect our self-esteem.

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Impression Management

The conscious or unconscious effort to control how others perceive us by influencing their impressions.

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False Consensus Effect

The tendency to overestimate how much others agree with our opinions and beliefs.

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Cognitive Dissonance

The uncomfortable mental state that arises when our beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors are inconsistent with each other.

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Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out and interpret information that confirms our existing beliefs, while avoiding information that contradicts them.

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Insufficient Justification

When someone performs a behavior without a strong external reason, they may later change their attitude to make it align with their behavior to reduce dissonance.

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Groupthink

The tendency for group decision-making to be impaired by a desire for harmony, leading to poor decisions because dissenting opinions aren't considered.

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Five-Factor Model

A personality model that describes five broad personality traits: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN).

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Heritability

The proportion of variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic differences.

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Twin Studies

Research that compares identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins to estimate the heritability of traits.

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Person x Situation Interaction

The idea that behavior is influenced by both personality traits and situational factors, and these two interact with each other.

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Reciprocal Determinism

A concept stating that individuals, their behaviors, and their environments all influence each other.

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Attachment Styles

Patterns of relating to others based on early childhood experiences with caregivers.

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Self-Concept

The image and understanding we have of ourselves.

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Self-Esteem

The overall evaluation we have of ourselves, whether we like ourselves or not.

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Placebo Effect

A change in a person's condition or behavior due to their belief that they are receiving a treatment, even if the treatment is inactive or fake.

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Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving the placebo. This helps reduce bias.

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Internal Validity

The extent to which a study's results can be confidently attributed to the independent variable and not to other factors (confounds).

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Differential Attrition

When participants drop out of a study at different rates across different groups. This can threaten internal validity, as it might lead to differences between groups that are not due to the treatment.

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What is External Validity?

The extent to which the findings of a study can be generalized to other populations, settings, and times.

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Effect Size

A measure of the magnitude of the difference or relationship between two variables. It indicates the practical importance of a finding.

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Null Hypothesis

A statistical hypothesis that states there is no difference between groups or no relationship between variables.

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Statistically Significant

A finding is considered statistically significant when there is enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis.

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Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

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Sensitivity

The ability to detect weak signals or subtle changes in stimulation.

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Signal Detection Theory

A theory that explains how we make decisions under conditions of uncertainty, considering both the sensory evidence and our prior expectations.

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Just-Noticeable Difference (JND)

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli.

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Weber's Law

States that the JND is proportional to the intensity of the original stimulus—the stronger the stimulus, the larger the change needed to detect a difference.

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What are psychoactive drugs?

Substances that affect mood, perception, and behavior by altering brain function.

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Adaptation

A decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

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Photoreceptor Cells

Specialized cells in the retina that convert light energy into electrical signals.

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What's the difference between an agonist and an antagonist?

An agonist mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter, while an antagonist blocks its effects.

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Which system do opioid drugs work on?

Opioid drugs act on the endogenous opioid system, which regulates pain, pleasure, and reward.

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Cones

Photoreceptor cells responsible for color vision and detail perception.

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Why are opioid drugs so addictive?

By mimicking endorphins, they activate the reward pathways in the brain, leading to intense feelings of pleasure and a strong desire to repeat the experience.

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Define nerve and nervous system.

A nerve is a bundle of fibers that transmit signals throughout the body. The nervous system is a network of nerves that control body function and behaviors.

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Identify the subdivisions of the nervous system.

The nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord - and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) - nerves extending from the CNS.

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What does the autonomic nervous system do?

Controls involuntary functions like heartbeat, breathing, and digestion.

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What's the endocrine system?

A network of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions.

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Knockout Gene

Disabling a gene to understand its function. This is like removing a specific part of a machine to see what stops working.

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Genome-Wide Association Studies

Analyzing DNA variations across the genome to find links between genes and traits. It's like looking at a big map to see if certain locations have higher chances of certain traits.

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Diathesis-Stress Model

Says that both genetic vulnerability ('diathesis') and environmental stress are needed for a disorder. It's like needing both a seed and fertile ground for a plant to grow.

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Differential Susceptibility Model

Argues that some people are more sensitive to their environment, both good and bad. It's like some plants thrive in both sunny and shady spots, while others need specific conditions.

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Gene Expression

The process of turning genetic information into a functional protein. It's like using a recipe to make a dish.

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Epigenetic Change

Changes in gene expression NOT caused by DNA sequence. It's like turning a volume knob up or down on a gene, without changing the actual instructions.

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Maternal Care and Epigenetics

Different maternal care styles can lead to epigenetic changes in offspring, like their stress response. It's like how a parent's behavior can shape a child's development.

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Behavioural Genetics

The study of how genes contribute to behavior. It's like investigating how a blueprint shapes the final building.

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Effort Justification

The tendency to increase our liking for something we have worked hard to achieve, even if it was not inherently enjoyable.

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Spreading of Alternatives

After making a decision between two alternatives, we tend to increase our liking for the chosen alternative and decrease our liking for the rejected alternative.

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What are the two types of photoreceptor cells?

Cones are responsible for color vision and detail perception, while rods are responsible for vision in low light conditions.

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What is the difference between the 'what' and 'where' pathways of visual processing?

The 'what' pathway (ventral stream) identifies objects, while the 'where' pathway (dorsal stream) determines location and movement.

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Immediate Victim, Powerful Experimenter

In Milgram's obedience study, participants were more likely to obey when the victim was distant (less immediate) and the experimenter was nearby and authoritative (powerful).

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What is Conformity?

Conformity is adjusting our behavior or beliefs to align with group norms, often to fit in or avoid social disapproval.

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Automatic Mimicry

The unconscious tendency to imitate others' behaviors, like mirroring their posture or facial expressions.

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Normative vs. Informational Influence

Normative influence is conforming to fit in with the group, while informational influence is conforming because we believe the group is right.

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Elaboration Likelihood Model

A model of persuasion explaining how people process messages, either through central (thoughtful, deliberate) or peripheral (superficial, emotional) routes.

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Need for Cognition

The individual's desire to engage in effortful thinking and analyze information.

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Door-in-the-Face Technique

A compliance technique where a large, unreasonable request is made first (likely to be refused), followed by a smaller, more reasonable request (which is more likely to be accepted).

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Foot-in-the-Door Technique

A compliance technique where a small request is made first, followed by a larger, related request (which is more likely to be accepted because of the initial commitment).

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Self-Serving Bias

The tendency to attribute our successes to internal factors (our abilities) and our failures to external factors (bad luck), protecting our self-esteem.

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Bystander Effect

The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when there are more bystanders present.

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Pain Matrix

A network of brain regions involved in processing and regulating pain, including the anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and thalamus. It also plays a role in motivation and reward.

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Reward in Psychology

A stimulus or event that increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. In psychology, reward is often understood in terms of its motivational and reinforcing properties. It can involve pleasure, satisfaction, or a reduction in negative feelings.

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Wanting vs. Liking

Wanting refers to the motivation or desire for a reward, while liking refers to the actual pleasure experienced when consuming it. These are separate processes.

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Alliesthesia

A change in the hedonic value (pleasantness or unpleasantness) of a stimulus, depending on the individual's internal state. For example, water will taste better when thirsty.

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Pain-Reward Interconnection

Pain and reward systems are interconnected in the brain. Pain can influence motivation and goal-directed behavior, while reward can modulate pain perception. They work together to guide our actions.

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Attachment Theory

A theory proposed by John Bowlby that states that infants have an innate need for a secure attachment to a primary caregiver. This attachment relationship serves as a secure base from which the child can explore the world. Early attachment experiences influence personality and social relationships throughout life.

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Brain Opioid Theory of Attachment

This theory proposes that the release of endorphins (natural opioids) in the brain plays a crucial role in the formation and maintenance of social bonds, particularly attachment relationships.

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Glucostatic and Lipostatic Hypotheses

These hypotheses explain how the body regulates hunger. The glucostatic hypothesis suggests that glucose levels in the blood are monitored, triggering hunger when they drop. The lipostatic hypothesis proposes that fat stores are monitored, signaling hunger when they fall below a certain threshold. Both theories suggest multiple regulatory systems to ensure consistent energy intake.

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Secure Attachment

A healthy attachment style where a person feels safe and secure with close relationships. They trust their partners and are comfortable being dependent.

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Anxious Attachment

An attachment style where a person is overly preoccupied with their relationships. They might be clingy, insecure, and worry about being abandoned.

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Avoidant Attachment

An attachment style where a person avoids closeness and emotional intimacy. They might be emotionally distant and uncomfortable with dependence.

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Study Notes

General Study Guide Information

  • This is a study guide for the PSYC 100 final exam.
  • The exam will cover all material from the course.
  • Emphasis will be placed on material covered after the second midterm; more questions per unit exist in the later units.
  • The study guide includes clarifications for previous study guides.

Unit 1: Introduction

  • Psychology, Mind, and Behavior: Defines these terms.
  • Social Cognition: Definition.
  • Folk Psychology: Explains folk psychology theories, their origins, and differences from scientific psychology.
  • Limitations of Personal Experience and Intuition: Discusses inattentional blindness, the illusion of attention, confirmation bias, and belief perseverance. Provides examples of subtle contextual factors influencing behavior.
  • Misattribution of Arousal: Definition.
  • Replication Studies: Definition and importance.
  • Summative Science: Definition of psychology as a summative science.
  • Areas of Psychology: Identifies different areas (e.g., biological, evolutionary, cultural, social, clinical), and their focus.
  • Critical Thinking: Discusses evaluating claims.
  • Effective Studying: Details research-based study strategies.

Unit 2: Research Methods

  • Scientific Method: Summarizing the scientific method. Definitions of theory, hypothesis, and data. Distinguishes between a theory and a hypothesis. Replication study and open science movement.
  • Paper Peer-Review: Definition.
  • Variables: Definition and types (measured, manipulated) and provides operational definitions.
  • Self-Report Measures: Definition, advantages and disadvantages, including social desirability bias.
  • Behavioral Observation: Definition, advantages, disadvantages and reactivity.
  • Indirect Measurement: Definition, examples, advantages and disadvantages.
  • Population, Sample, and Random Samples: Definitions, why a random sample is important and when non-random sampling can be misleading.
  • Descriptive Research: Definition, case studies, and correlational research.
  • Correlation and Causation: Interpreting strength and direction of relationships from scatterplots and correlation coefficients, and why correlations don't prove causation.
  • Experiments and Causation: Why experiments can establish causation. Distinction between independent and dependent variables. Random assignment and control groups.
  • Validity: Definition and types; measurement validity, reliability, internal validity, and external validity; factors that threaten internal or external validity (e.g., differential attrition).
  • Effect Size: Definition.
  • Null Hypothesis Testing: Definition and p-value, and factors affecting its size.
  • Central Tendency: Three measures of central tendency.
  • Descriptive Statistics: Frequency distribution, mean, median, mode, standard deviation.
  • Institutional Review Board: (IRB): Purpose and ethical principles guiding research proposals. Importance of informed consent. Potential violations of research principles (e.g., autonomy) and how to mitigate issues like deception.
  • Non-human Animal Research: Three key principles of research with non-human animal subjects.

Unit 3: Genetics and Evolutionary Foundations of Behavior

  • Biological terms (genome, DNA, chromosome, gene, allele, genotype, phenotype).
  • Principles of dominance (dominant vs recessive alleles) and heterozygous vs homozygous genotypes.
  • Gene-environment interaction.
  • Candidate Gene Studies and Genome-Wide Association Studies: Their uses and limitations.
  • Diathesis-stress and differential susceptibility models.
  • Gene expression.
  • Epigenetic change.
  • Behavioral Genetics and Heritability.
  • Twin Studies and Heritability estimates.
  • Artificial selection vs Natural selection.
  • Adaptation and differential fitness.
  • Functionalism.
  • Distal and proximate explanations, and the need to belong.

Unit 4: The Biological Bases of Behavior

  • Neurons: Types, structures, and function.
  • Synaptic Communication: Action potentials, neurotransmitters, receptors, and synaptic clefts.
  • Neurotransmitters: GABA, acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine, and endorphins; their functions.
  • Psychoactive Drugs: Agonists, antagonists. Endogenous opioid system.
  • Nervous System: Definition, subdivisions and functions, conscious and unconscious control.
  • Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, role of hormones such as oxytocin, and relationships to social behavior.
  • Spinal Reflexes.
  • Parts of the Brain: Pons, medulla oblongata, reticular formation, cerebellum, limbic system, and their functions. Specific areas like Capgras syndrome, cerebral cortex, and its components.
  • Language Centers: Broca's and Wernicke's areas and their functions.
  • Brain Organization: Contralateral organization, lateralization, and other aspects.
  • Phantom Limb Syndrome: Definition and example.
  • Neural Plasticity: Definition and examples.

Unit 5: Sensation and Perception

  • Color Constancy, Stimulus, Sensation, Transduction, & Perception: Definitions
  • Psychophysics: Absolute threshold, Signal detection theory, Just noticeable difference (JND), Weber's law, Adaptation.
  • Vision: Eye structure (photoreceptors, cones, rods, transduction, dark adaptation).
  • Color Vision Theories: Trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory.
  • Visual Information Processing: Feature detectors, ventral and dorsal pathways, visual association areas, and visual agnosia & prosopagnosia (visual recognition deficits).
  • Depth Perception: Binocular and monocular cues.
  • Gestalt Principles: Figure-ground, proximity, closure, similarity, continuation.
  • Auditory System: Components and functions, place theory, and frequency theory.
  • Touch: Tactile agnosia, touch receptors
  • Special Senses: Smell, taste, etc.
  • Interoception and Proprioception: Definitions.
  • Vestibular System, and Motion Sickness: Role of vestibular systems.

Unit 6: Learning

  • Learning: Define learning and distinguish between non-associative and associative learning.
  • Habituation, Dishabituation, and Sensitization: Definitions.
  • Classical Conditioning: CS, US, CR, UR, acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination.
  • Operant Conditioning: Law of effect; reinforcement and punishment, primary vs. secondary reinforcers, shaping, delay discounting, continuous vs partial reinforcement schedules, contingency vs contiguity.
  • Blocking, Counterconditioning, and Overdoses: Concepts.
  • Preparedness and Observational Learning: Concepts and their application to real-life examples.
  • Latent Learning: Definition and concepts related to memory.
  • Insight Learning: Definition and examples.
  • Memory Constructiveness & Errors: Misinformation effect, source memory, source amnesia, reality monitoring, and imagination inflation.
  • Gist vs Verbatim Memory: Definition and difference.
  • Deese-Roediger-McDermott Paradigm: Concept, and examples.

Unit 7: Consciousness

  • Consciousness: Definition, challenges.
  • Awareness and Arousal: Definition and differences.
  • Attention (Spotlight Effect etc.): Definition and examples.
  • Mind Wandering: Nature, functions, and costs/benefits as studied.
  • Levels of the Mind: Conscious, preconscious, unconscious.
  • Cocktail-Party Phenomenon: Definition and concepts.
  • Subliminal Perception: Definition and studies.
  • Sleep-Wake Cycle: Stages of sleep and their functions (e.g., REM).
  • Default Mode Network (DMN): Definition and activity patterns.
  • Circadian Rhythms and Zeitgeibers: Role of environmental cues.
  • Biological Rhythms and Sleep-Wake Cycle: The biological mechanisms regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
  • Sleep Deprivation: Effects
  • Dreaming: Freud's theory, activation-synthesis hypothesis, and other theories.
  • Drugs: Depressants and stimulants, like alcohol and hallucinogens.
  • Hypnosis: Definition and hypnotic analgesia.

Unit 8: Memory

  • Stages of Memory: Sensory, short-term, and long-term.
  • Multistore Model of Memory: Iconic and echoic memory
  • Working Memory: Definition, components, (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, central executive). Chunking.
  • Long-Term Memory: Serial position curve, recency effect, primacy effect, levels of processing theory, elaboration, semantic encoding, and self-referential encoding.
  • Memory Impairments: Anterograde and retrograde amnesia (and their relationship to memory)
  • Explicit vs Implicit Memory: Definition and examples.
  • Priming and Affective Conditioning: Definition and examples (implied or explicit memory).
  • Memory Consolidation: Definition and processes.
  • Encoding Specificity Principle: Definition and examples.
  • Prospective Memory: Definition and examples.
  • Interference: Retroactive and proactive interference.
  • Memory Distortion and Errors: Source memory, source amnesia, reality monitoring, misinformation effect, and imagination inflation.
  • Gist and Verbatim memory: Differences.
  • False Memory: Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm.

Unit 9: Motivation & Emotion

  • Motives: Instinct, homeostasis, drive-reduction theory.
  • Pain: Sensory vs. affective components; the pain matrix.
  • Reward Processes, Alliesthesia: Definition and concepts.
  • Attachment: Harlow's research, Bowlby's theory, and the brain opioid theory of attachment
  • Hunger Regulation: Glucostatic and lipostatic hypotheses
  • Hypothalamus & Eating: Role of the hypothalamus in regulating appetite.
  • Sexual Motivation: Hormonal influences, ovulation cues.
  • Achievement Motivation: Performance vs mastery orientation, and the different types of goals.
  • Emotion: Components; James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories.
  • Appraisals: Definition, emotional Granularity, and Alexythmia
  • Emotion Regulation: Suppressing and reappraising.
  • Misattribution of Arousal: Definition, examples, and consequences.
  • Emotional Granularity & Alexithymia: Definition and examples
  • Functionalist perspective on emotion: Definition, applications, and examples.

Unit 10: Social Psychology

  • Social Psychology: Definition, "big ideas," obedience, conformity.
  • Milgram Experiment & Obedience: Factors influencing obedience.
  • Conformity: Automatic mimicry, normative and informational social influence, internalization.
  • Attitudes: Components and the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM).
  • Persuasion: Techniques.
  • Compliance: Norm of reciprocity, the foot-in-the-door technique, the door-in-the-face technique.
  • First Impressions: Initial snap judgments and their impact.
  • Schemas & Stereotypes: Definition, types (person, event) and effects.
  • Social Cognition: Top-down vs bottom-up processing, schemas, person perception.
  • Fundamental Attribution Error: Define, and apply to examples.
  • Self-Serving bias: Definition, and apply to examples.
  • Cognitive Dissonance: Definition, examples and reduction strategies.
  • Confirmation Bias: Definition and examples.
  • Group Polarization: Definition and factors affecting it.
  • Groupthink: Definition and factors affecting it..
  • Bystander effect: Definition and its factors (pluralistic ignorance, and diffusion of responsibility).

Unit 11: Personality

  • Personality: Definition, psychodynamic view (Freud’s theory), and the trait approach.
  • Trait Approach: Functional equivalent situations, the Lexical Hypothesis, the Five-Factor Model, Heritability and Twin Studies.
  • Person-Situation Interaction: Definition and examples.
  • Attachment Style: Secure, anxious, avoidant, and interpersonal aspects.
  • Self-Concept: Self-esteem, self-enhancement, self-verification theories.
  • Social Comparison and Self-perception Theory: Definition and relevance to self-concept.
  • Narcissism: Definition and features.
  • Collectivism & Individualism: Interdependent and independent self-construals.

Unit 12: Psychological Disorders & Treatment

  • Prevalence: Point vs. Lifetime prevalence
  • Psychological Disorders: Challenges in defining, ADHD, specific phobia, social anxiety, panic disorder, generalized anxiety, agoraphobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, PTSD, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Comorbidity & Concordance rates.
  • Assessment: Methods and components of a clinical assessment.
  • Theoretical Approaches to Disorders: Diathesis-stress models
  • Diagnosis: Concepts like diagnosis and treatment planning and associated challenges.
  • Treatment: Drug treatments, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), third wave therapies, and other methods.
  • Therapy-Specific Techniques: Exposure therapy, systematic desensitization, token economy, and shaping.
  • Cognitive Therapy: Negative cognitive triad
  • Therapeutic Alliance: Definition.
  • Common Factors in Therapy: Regression to the mean.

Unit 13: Stress & Health

  • Biopsychosocial Models of Health and Disease: Definition and distinction between biomedical and biopsychosocial models.
  • Stress Response: Neural and physiological pathways, including the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous systems.
  • Allostatic Load: Definition and chronic stress effects.
  • Stress Appraisal Theory: Primary and secondary appraisals; challenge vs. threat.
  • Stress-Related Outcomes: Physical effects.
  • Social Support: Definition and relation to health.

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PSYC 100 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

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Test your understanding of key concepts in scientific research, including the differences between theories and hypotheses, the goals of the open science movement, and the importance of replication studies. This quiz also assesses your knowledge of peer review processes in academic publishing.

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