Week 2 (Fill in the Blank)

How Science Safeguards Against Fallacies

• Science uses systematic observation, falsifiability, and replication to counter cognitive biases.
• Science relies on empirical evidence rather than intuition.
• Claims are tested against objective data.
• A bias is a tendency to be disproportionately for or against an object, person, or idea, and can be good or bad.

Examples of Biases

• Confirmation bias involves seeking evidence that supports beliefs and dismissing evidence that contradicts them.
• Karl Popper stated that scientific theories must be falsifiable to address confirmation bias.
• Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a new perspective.
• Hindsight bias involves seeing events as more predictable after they occur, relating to anchoring bias.
• Bias blind spot is the tendency to believe one is less biased than peers.
• Base rate neglect is ignoring the underlying prevalence of a phenomenon when judging probabilities (focus on specific over general info).
• Halo and horn effects involve a positive/negative impression in one area affecting impression in other areas.

Bias and Cognitive Ability

• Most cognitive biases are typically unrelated to cognitive ability, while some (e.g., bias blind spot) may be stronger in those with high ability.
• Intelligence offers little protection from bias.
• Biases aren't inherently bad but can be problematic and often interfere with critical, scientific thinking.
• Because scientists are biased, science progresses through critique of each other's work.

Science as a Safeguard (Extra)

• Science uses empirical methods to counteract biases and fallacies.
• Confirmation bias countered by falsifiability.
• Scientific scepticism encourages open-mindedness while demanding strong evidence.
• Replication ensures generalizable findings.
• Occam's Razor prefers simpler explanations.

Levels of Analysis (Depression)

• Social level: Loss of relationships, lack of support.
• Behavioral level: Decreased pleasure.
• Mental level: Depressed thoughts.
• Neurological/physiological level: Differences in brain function.
• Neurochemical level: Differences in brain messenger levels.
• Molecular level: Genetic variations predisposing to depression.

Psychological Pseudoscience vs. Science

• Psychological pseudoscience lacks falsifiability, self-correction, and replicability, relying on anecdotes and confirmation bias.
• Psychological science is grounded in empirical evidence, peer review, and the scientific method.
• Science is an approach to evidence and explanations.
• Pseudoscience is a set of claims that seems scientific, but is not.
• A scientific theory explains a large number of findings.
• A scientific theory ties multiple findings into one conceptual package.
• Requires a testable prediction known as a hypothesis.

Traits of Pseudoscience and Science

• Psychological science is based on empirical evidence, relies on falsifiable hypotheses, and is replicable and peer-reviewed.
• Psychological pseudoscience lacks safeguards against biases, uses anecdotes instead of systematic data, avoids self-correction, overuses ad hoc immunizing hypotheses, lacks replication and review.
• Belief perseverance: resistance to change when presented with contradicting evidence.
• Backfire effect happens when beliefs strengthen when faced with contradictory evidence.

Considerations with Pseudoscience

• Opportunity costs: Costs of not doing something more productive/effective.
• Direct harm: Some pseudoscience can cause direct harm.
• Inability to think critically: Misinformation can impair critical thinking.

Pseudoscience Summary

• Science involves theories and hypotheses to understand the world.
• Pseudoscience lacks safeguards, especially related to confirmation bias and belief perseverance.
• People seek meaning and comfort in beliefs, drawing them to pseudoscience.
• Pseudoscience is costly due to opportunity costs, direct harm, and impaired critical thinking.

Reasons for Attraction to Pseudoscience

• Humans seek patterns and meaning, making pseudoscience appealing due to simple explanations, emotional reassurance, and confirmation.
• Cognitive biases like belief perseverance and backfire effect reinforce pseudoscientific thinking.
• Patternicity: The human tendency to see patterns where none exist.
• Offers simple explanations for complex issues and provides comfort.
• Strong emotional attachment to existing beliefs may make it hard to change your mind.
• Contradictory evidence can strengthen pseudoscientific beliefs.
• Examples: Astrology, homeopathy, and conspiracy theories.

Scientific Scepticism

• Scientific scepticism involves evaluating claims with an open mind while requiring strong empirical evidence.
• It includes ruling out rival hypotheses, correlation vs. causation, and replicability.

Key Features of Scientific Scepticism

• Open-mindedness: Evaluating claims fairly with curiosity.
• Demanding strong evidence before accepting claims.
• Critical thinking is necessary.

Principles of Scientific Thinking

• Extraordinary Claims require persuasive evidence.
• Testing Predictions involves testing novel predictions by them and their rival scientists.
• Generalizability requires researchers to consider how well findings reflect a diversity of human experience.
• Replicability ensures the results can be duplicated in other studies.
• Ruling Out Rival Hypotheses means ensuring no important alternative explanations have been excluded.
• Correlation vs Causation: Ensuring A causes B (not just an association).

Basic Principles of Scientific Thinking

• Is based on empiricism, falsifiability, systematic testing, and replication.
• Science is a method, not a belief system: Grounded in empiricism which means knowledge through observation.

Theories and Hypotheses

• A theory is a broad explanation for a range of findings.
• Hypothesis: A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Scientific Method

• Objective observation necessary.
• Falsifiability: the ability to disprove claims.
• Systematic testing through experiments.
• The replication crisis highlights the need for reform in psychology and scientific methodology.

Replication

• Foundational element of the scientific method.
• Shows that findings generalize.
• Media is more likely to report novel/sensational findings.
• Important to make sure that reliable info reaches the public.

Explanations for Poor Replication

• Publish-or-perish mentality exists.
• Publication bias can occur.
• P-hacking can contribute.

Conclusion

• Science counteracts biases by requiring empirical evidence and peer review.
• Pseudoscience exploits cognitive tendencies to create misleading claims.
• Scientific skepticism distinguishes truth from misinformation.
• The replication crisis demonstrates that even established scientific knowledge must be continuously tested.
• Cultural considerations: Science is viewed as a Western paradigm, but Indigenous Knowledge Systems offer valid perspectives.