Schemas, Scripts and Heuristics

Schemas and Scripts

• Schemas and scripts are mental frameworks for efficient information processing.

Positive Consequences of Schemas and Scripts

• Schemas and scripts allow quick interpretation of new situations based on past experiences.
• They enhance memory recall through systematic information organization.
• These frameworks assist in problem-solving and decision-making by providing structure.

Negative Consequences of Schemas and Scripts

• Schemas and scripts can lead to stereotyping and biased judgments.
• They may cause false memories by distorting details to fit existing schemas.
• These frameworks can result in rigid thinking, hindering adaptation to new information.

Heuristics

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that simplify decision-making but may lead to biases.

Availability Heuristic

• Decisions are based on how easily examples are recalled.
• For example, overestimating the risk of flying after hearing about plane crashes.

Representativeness Heuristic

• Judgments are based on similarity to a prototype.
• For example, assuming someone who wears glasses and reads is a librarian.

Anchoring Heuristic

• Decisions are influenced by initial information or anchor.
• For example, a discount to $27,000 seems great if a car was initially priced at $30,000, even if it's still overpriced.

Confirmation Bias

• Confirmation bias involves seeking information that supports existing beliefs and ignoring contradictory evidence.
• Heuristics are helpful for quick decisions but often lead to errors and biases.

Intelligence Measurements

• Several tests measure intelligence, but their validity depends on what they assess.

IQ Tests

• IQ tests (e.g., WAIS, Stanford-Binet) measure cognitive ability through reasoning, memory, and verbal skills.
• Their validity is a good predictor of academic success, but is limited in measuring creativity and practical intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ) Tests

• Emotional Intelligence (EQ) tests assess the ability to perceive and manage emotions.
• Validity is important for social interactions but harder to measure objectivity.

Standardized Achievement Tests

• Standardized Achievement Tests measure knowledge and skills in specific areas.
• Validity reflects learned knowledge but does not measure innate intelligence.

General Intelligence (g factor)

• Spearman’s theory states that intelligence is a single, general ability underlying all cognitive tasks.

Fluid Intelligence

• Fluid intelligence is the ability to solve novel problems and think abstractly, independent of acquired knowledge.
• It peaks in early adulthood.

Crystallized Intelligence

• Crystallized intelligence is knowledge gained from experience, education, and culture.
• It increases with age.

Multiple Intelligences

• Gardner proposes distinct types of intelligence (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic).
• Criticism includes the lack of empirical evidence compared to general intelligence theories.

Genetic Genetic Influences on Intelligence

• Twin studies show hereditary influence, with IQ correlation higher in identical twins compared to fraternal twins.
• Heritability estimates range from 40-80%, depending on the environment.

Environmental Factors Influences on Intelligence

• Nutrition, education, socioeconomic status, and parental involvement influence intelligence.
• The Flynn effect shows IQ scores have risen over generations, suggesting environmental improvements (e.g., education, nutrition) enhance intelligence.
• Overall, intelligence is shaped by a complex interaction between genetics and environment.

Synaptic Pruning

• Synaptic pruning is a natural process where the brain eliminates unused neural connections for efficiency.
• The process begins in infancy, peaks in early childhood, and continues into adolescence.
• The brain strengthens frequently used connections and removes weaker, unused ones.

Environmental Impact on Synaptic Pruning

• Enriched environments (e.g., language, education, and social interaction) strengthen key neural pathways.
• Deprived environments like neglect and lack of stimulation can lead to excessive pruning, reducing cognitive abilities and development.

The Mozart Effect

• The Mozart Effect is a theory that listening to Mozart’s music can enhance intelligence.

Mozart Effect Findings

• The original study showed temporary spatial reasoning improvement in college students after listening to Mozart.
• Later research found no such lasting effects on intelligence, especially in infants.
• Intelligence is shaped by multiple factors, including genetics, environment, and active learning, not just passive listening.
• Music may have other benefits, such as enhancing mood, attention, and emotional development, but it does not boost intelligence.

Types of Infant Attachment

• Mary Ainsworth identified four attachment styles in the Strange Situation experiment.

Secure Attachment

• The infant feels safe, explores freely, and seeks comfort from the caregiver when distressed, leading to healthy relationships and emotional security later in life.

Avoidant Attachment

• The infant avoids or ignores the caregiver, showing little distress when they leave, potentially struggling with forming close relationships.

Ambivalent (Resistant) Attachment

• The infant is very distressed when the caregiver leaves but is difficult to comfort upon return, possibly leading to anxiety and difficulty trusting others.

Disorganized Attachment

• The infant shows inconsistent or confused behavior toward the caregiver, often due to neglect or trauma, increasing the risk of emotional and behavioral challenges.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Jean Piaget proposed four stages in cognitive development.

Sensorimotor Stage (Birth – 2 years)

• Infants learn through sensory experiences and movement.
• Object permanence develops where they understand objects exist even when not visible.

Preoperational Stage (2 – 7 years)

• Language and imagination development take place, but thinking is egocentric with an inability to see others’ perspectives.
• Struggle with conservation happens, understanding quantity remains the same despite changes in shape.

Concrete Operational Stage (7 – 11 years)

• Beginning logical thinking about concrete objects.
• Understand conservation, cause and effect, and classification.

Formal Operational Stage (12+ years)

• Development of abstract and hypothetical thinking occurs.
• Logical reasoning, problem-solving, and moral reasoning take place.

Challenges to Piaget’s Theory

• Underestimating infant abilities has research showing infants understand object permanence earlier than Piaget suggested.
• Overemphasis on stages is incorrect as development is more continuous rather than occurring in strict stages.
• The lack of consideration for cultural and social factors is that Vygotsky emphasized that social interactions and culture play a larger role in development than Piaget.
• Focus on logical thinking fails to account for emotional, social, or creative intelligence.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

• Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a theory of moral development with three levels, each with two stages, explaining the development of ethical decision-making over time.

Preconventional Level

• Characterized by self-interest and consequences.
• Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment occurs- Moral reasoning is based on avoiding punishment. For example, a child does not steal because they fear being punished.
• Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange takes place- Moral decisions are based on self-interest and rewards. For example, "I'll help you if you help me."

Conventional Level

• Centers around social approval and order.
• Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships occur ("Good Boy/Good Girl")- Behavior is driven by seeking social approval and maintaining relationships. For example, a teenager follows rules to gain acceptance from friends.
• Stage 4: Law and Order is important- Morality is based on obeying laws and maintaining social order. For example, a person does not cheat on taxes because laws must be followed.

Postconventional Level

• Characterized by abstract principles and ethics.
• Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights are valued- Laws are recognized as important but can be challenged if they violate human rights. Example: Civil rights activists fight unjust laws.
• Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles drive decision-making- Moral reasoning is based on personal ethical beliefs that transcend laws. For example, a person protects human rights even if it means breaking the law.
• This theory is primarily based on Western values of justice and fairness, it does not fully consider moral reasoning based on emotions or cultural differences, and it focuses more on reasoning rather than actual behavior.

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

• Erik Erikson proposed that personality develops through eight stages, each involving a key conflict that shapes an individual’s sense of self.

Stages of Development

• Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0–1 year): Infants learn to trust caregivers who provide love and care. If needs are unmet, mistrust develops.
• Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood, 1–3 years): Children develop independence by exploring their environment. Over-restriction can cause feelings of shame and doubt.
• Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3–6 years): Kids take initiative in activities and social interactions. Too much control or criticism leads to guilt and hesitation.
• Industry vs. Inferiority (Childhood, 6–12 years): Children gain confidence through school and achievements. Failure to develop skills can cause feelings of inferiority.
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12–18 years): Teens explore their identity, values, and future roles. The unclear self-concept leads to confusion about life direction.
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 18–40 years): Forming close relationships and emotional bonds is important. The fear of rejection results in isolation and loneliness.
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40–65 years): Contributing to society through work, family, or community is important. A lack of purpose can lead to stagnation and unfulfillment.
• Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years): Reflecting on life with satisfaction or regret is part of this stage. A regretful past can lead to despair and fear of death.

How Peers, Parents, and Cultural Forces Shape the Sense of Self

• Peers influence identity development, social norms, and behavior, and peer pressure can impact choices, including risk-taking and moral values.
• Parents provide early attachment and shape self-esteem through support or criticism, and parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian, permissive) affect independence and confidence.
• Culture determines values, traditions, and societal expectations, with collectivist cultures emphasizing group identity, while individualistic cultures promote personal achievements.

Components of Emotions

• Physiological response: Bodily reactions (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating)
• Behavioral response: Facial expressions, gestures, or actions
• Cognitive appraisal: How we interpret the situation and label the emotion

Understanding Terminology

• Feeling: A subjective experience of an emotion
• Emotion: A complex reaction that includes feelings, physiological responses, and expressions
• Mood: A long-lasting emotional state that is less intense than an emotion

Primary vs. Secondary Emotions

• Primary emotions are universal and innate (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, disgust, surprise).
• Secondary emotions are learned and influenced by culture (e.g., guilt, shame, pride, embarrassment).

Theories of Emotion - Common Sense View

• Emotion comes first, then the bodily response.
• For example, “I feel afraid, so my heart starts racing.”

Theories of Emotion - James-Lange Theory

• Bodily response comes first, then emotion.
• For example, “My heart is racing, so I must be afraid.”

Theories of Emotion - Cannon-Bard Theory

• Emotion and physiological response happen simultaneously.
• For example, “I feel afraid and my heart races at the same time.”

Theories of Emotion - Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• Emotion depends on both physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of the situation.
• For example, “My heart is racing, and since I see a bear, I must be afraid.”

Misattribution of Arousal

• Misattribution of arousal happens when people incorrectly identify the source of their physical arousal.
• For example, a person’s heart races after exercising, but they misinterpret it as romantic attraction to someone they just met.

Understanding Terminology - Motivation

• Need: A biological or psychological requirement (e.g., food, water, belonging)
• Drive: An internal state that pushes us to satisfy a need (e.g., hunger drives us to eat)
• Motivation: The process that directs and sustains behavior to achieve a goal

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• A pyramid of human needs, where basic needs must be met before higher-level needs. -Physiological needs: Food, water, and sleep
• Safety needs: Security, stability, and shelter
• Love and belonging: Social relationships, family, and friendships
• Esteem needs: Self-confidence, achievement, and respect
• Self-actualization: Fulfilling one’s potential and personal growth

Yerkes-Dodson Law

• Performance is best at moderate arousal levels.
• Too little arousal leads to low motivation and poor performance.
• Too much arousal causes stress and impaired performance.
• For example, a student performs best on a test with a moderate level of anxiety—not too relaxed or too anxious.

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation is driven by external rewards (e.g., money, praise, grades).
• Intrinsic Motivation is driven by internal satisfaction (e.g., personal enjoyment, curiosity).

Core Values

• Fundamental beliefs that guide behavior and decision-making.
• Honesty
• Integrity
• Respect
• Responsibility
• Compassion
• Perseverance