Schemas in Everyday Life and Memory

Schemas in Everyday Life

• Schemas influence how we perceive and remember information, even in naturalistic settings.
• Brewer & Treyens (1981): Participants recalled schema-consistent items (e.g., desk) better than inconsistent ones (e.g., skull). False recall and recognition were higher for schema-consistent items.
• Bartlett (1932): Schema effect demonstrates memory distortions due to expectations. Participants recalling a bank robbery story tended to include schema-relevant details. Simulated crime ambiguity showed bias, such as assuming a masked robber’s gender.

Schemas and Confirmation Bias

• Schema effects persist through encoding and are affected by expectations.
• Schemas influence recall and recognition, increasing the likelihood of remembering schema-related information.
• Tuckey & Brewer (2003): Recall of a bank robbery video contained more schema-consistent bank robbery details.

Effects of Anxiety and Attention During Encoding

• Encoding Effects: Anxiety can affect memory accuracy, but the effects are debated.
• Pickel (1999): No effect of threat on accuracy in an experiment.
• Yuille & Cutshall (1986): Real-life study showed higher accuracy in low-anxiety groups.
• Schwabe & Wolf (2010): Stress (ice water, social discomfort) negatively impacts learning.
• Deffenbacher et al (2004): Real-life studies suggest low anxiety/stress leads to higher accuracy in eyewitness identification, detail and action recall.
• Marr et al (2020): Inconsistency exists in the reported effects of stress on encoding.
• Reduced Attention: Poor attention during encoding can lead to poorer memory.

Information After the Event

• Loftus & Palmer (1974): Eyewitness testimony is fragile.
• Misinformation acceptance increases over time, unrelated to accuracy of reports.
• Factors influencing misinformation acceptance include belief, vividness, speed of recall, intensity of experience, and emotional impact.
• Loftus & Zanni (1975): Different phrasing of questions affects recall. For example, using "frequent" vs. "occasional" in questions for headaches yields different recalled frequency.

False Memories

• Loftus's research showed that false memories can be implanted in a significant percentage of individuals (e.g 25%). 
• Created details surrounding the planted false memory increased memorization.

Children as Eyewitnesses

• Children are more suggestible than adults, impacting eyewitness recall.
• Bruck & Ceci (1997): Children's reports are influenced by questioning styles.
• Thompson et al (1977): Children's recall can be influenced by leading questions.
• Even neutral questioning can result in errors related to increased social compliance and limited cognitive abilities.
• Methods for improving child eyewitness accuracy: avoid biased questioning, reinstate context and allow drawings, use repeated testing.

Summary

• Schemas significantly impact memory encoding, retrieval, and even social judgement.
• Misinformation and suggestibility are potent factors impacting recall accuracy.
• Factors like anxiety, attention, and time post-event can influence memory reliability, with potentially dramatic implications.

This quiz explores how schemas influence our perception and memory of information in various contexts. Based on key studies, including those by Brewer & Treyens and Bartlett, it examines how expectations shape our recall and recognition of details, particularly in scenarios like crime witness testimonies. Test your understanding of schemas and their effects on memory!