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Intro

• Personality consists of underlying characteristics, that account for consistent patterns of behavior and experience.
• A personality profile is a graphic representation of one's unique personality, akin to a fingerprint.
• MMPI-2 is an example of a personality profile.
• Personality theory is nomothetic, studying all people to find universals.
• It is not idiographic, which involves case studies and retrospective psychobiographies.
• Personality can be described using Types, Traits, and Factors.

Personality: Types, Traits, & Factors

• Types categorize people with similar characteristics (e.g., Type A vs. Type B).
• A limitation of Types is their all-or-nothing categorization, which limits the number of variables.
• Traits are common-sense descriptors that distinguish individuals and cause consistent behavior.
• Traits are quantitative/dimensional.
• A drawback of traits is redundancy due to the large number of trait words.
• Factors are statistically derived and quantitative, representing dimensions broader than traits.
• Raymond Cattell's 16 personality factors preceded the Big Five (OCEAN).
• The Big Five (OCEAN) includes: Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
• Dynamics refer to how personality is expressed and modified.
• Development pertains to how personality develops over time.

Zeitgeist and Ortgeist

• Zeitgeist describes how an idea emerges when the necessary material is available and the time is right.
• Alfred Wallace's theory of evolution is an example.
• Ortgeist refers to how ideas reflect the place where they were proposed.

Psychological Ideologies

• German psychology emphasizes language for better description of mental states.
• English psychology focuses on classification and testing, influenced by evolutionary theories.
• French psychology concentrates on emotion, particularly in abnormal psychology.
• American psychology is pragmatic and focused on applied psychology.

Experimental Psychology: Structuralism

• Structuralism, founded by Wilhelm Wundt in Germany during the late 19th century, studies the structure of the mind.
• Introspection, where individuals report their inner thoughts, is a key method.
• Structuralism paved the way for other movements in psychology.

Gestalt Psychology

• Gestalt psychology, developed by Kurt Lewin and Max Wertheimer, posits that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
• Gestalt psychology focuses on individuals in concrete situations.
• Psychology should address human issues like addictions.

Functionalism & Behaviorism

• Functionalism, championed by William James, reacted against static elements in the environment.
• Functionalism is interested in individual differences.
• Behaviorism, associated with Watson, opposes introspection and consciousness.
• A drawback of behaviorism is its failure to explain personality.
• Behavior is environment-specific and easily changed, whereas personality is individual and more difficult to alter.

Germ Model

• The germ model treats disorders like medical diseases, where each disease has a germ.
• Identifying each germ depends on careful description and classification.
• Treatment involves removing the germ, often through immunization after low-intensity infection.
• The germ model led to physical inquiry, including the study of hysterics (now called conversion disorder).
• Mesmer proposed that unbalanced body fluids cause hysteria.
• Charcot believed expectations cause hysteria, demonstrated by glove anesthesia, paralysis, mutism, deafness, and tics.
• Mental conflicts are the sources of psychodynamic germs.
• Low self-esteem are the sources of cognitive germs.
• Poor learning history are the sources of behavioral germs.

Measurement Techniques: Self-Report

• Self-report techniques include the MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2).
• It distinguishes individuals with psychological difficulties from those without.
• It contains 567 true/false questions and three validity scales: F (faking bad), L (lying), and K (faking good).

Projective Tests

• Projective tests use ambiguous stimuli, interpreted in a quantitative manner.
• Interpretation involves color, form, and movement analysis, validated by norming data.
• Examples include the Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.
• In the Thematic Apperception Test, individuals describe what is happening in a picture.
• Recurrent themes indicate central personality structures and potential issues.

Validity and Reliability in Testing

• Construct validity is achieved when a test measures what it intends to measure.
• Predictive validity is proven when the test can predict future behavior or illness
• E.g., CMHO (cook-medley hostility outcomes) predicting CHD.
• Reliability ensures that tests yield similar scores over time (test-retest reliability).
• Alternate forms reliability involves using two different versions of the same test.

Direct Observation

• Direct observation involves the direct measurement of behavior to describe personality characteristics.
• This is favored by behaviorists who believe behavior is personality.

Freud (1856-1939)

• Freud moved to Vienna from Czech at a young age, and was spoiled by his mother.
• He was a bookworm, proficient in 6 languages and Shakespeare.
• Freud studied with Ernst Brucke, focusing on fetal brains, which influenced his idea that early structures persist long-term.
• He worked with Joseph Breur on conversion disorder, using hypnosis, "talking cure", and free association.
• After falling ill at 41, he feared death and began dream analysis.
• He had daughters and sons who served in WWI.
• Freud proposed Thanatos: death instinct, a destructive force leading to death.
• Underwent 33 operations for cancer.
• Freud also proposed Eros: life instinct which is the motivation for life-maintaining behavior and love.
• The Nazis burned Freud's books, resulting in his attempted suicide with morphine but died of mouth cancer.

Topographical Theory

• Freud's topographical theory includes the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious.
• Repression is related to neurosis.
• The motivated unconscious contains dreams, dreamwork, and humor.
• A lot of energy is used by the mind to keep things unconscious.
• This keeps unacceptable ideas from the conscious mind.
• Neurosis: energy crisis occurring if too much is kept unconscious

DreamWork

• Dreams are illogical, so the mind hides the dreams' true content.
• Condensation can occurs, where 2+ images form an image, merging meaning and drives.
• An example is the Annie Hall scene from Woody Allen of commentary + dissent = dysentery.
• Displacement distorts the object of the drive
• E.g., sex drive turns into food drive.
• Symbolism masks content of impulse.
• Manifest content is the actual recalled dream.
• Latent content is the hidden meaning or interpretation.

Structural Theory of the Mind

• Id: The earliest to form, follows the pleasure principle (unconscious), including instincts/libido, and wish fulfillment.
• Ego: 2nd to develop, it's rational, follows the reality principle, accounts for external forces and internal needs, reduces tension but causes anxiety (conscious).
• Superego: Last to form (at age 5/6), absorbs parents' rules (introjection -> absorbing parents' values) to eventually create own morals/values (preconscious).
• Objective Anxiety: fear of real things, if extreme, leads to phobia

Defense Mechanisms and Psychosexual Development

• Neurotic Anxiety is based on childhood conflict between gratification vs. reality and is caused by the id being punished.
• Moral Anxiety is shame and guilt originating from punishment for violating moral codes.
• Defense mechanisms are used for anxiety.
• Repression: involuntary removal from consciousness, where the ego denies id.
• Reaction formation: Express opposite, if you hate your brother, you show love.
• Projection: Project feelings onto others, so you might say “you can never trust anyone".
• Denial: A lowest form of defense mechanism.
• Rationalization: Disguise motives to be acceptable to superego.
• Displacement: Put feelings onto another object/person, so frustration with boss -> puts frustration on less threatening other.
• Sublimation: The “highest” defense mechanism, compromise where id needs are acceptably filled (e.g., aggression -> football).
• Regression: Movement back to a previous psychological time when there was less stress.
• Psychosexual Development: develop through stages related to most sensitive body part at that time.
• Fixation: One is unable to move through a stage effectively, leading to potential personalities.

Psychosexual Stages

• Oral Stage (0-2):
• Erotic: Too much gratification -> excessive, optimistic, gullible, dependent.
• Sadistic: Not enough gratification -> stubborn, stingy, materialistic, neat.
• Anal Stage (2-4): from overly harsh toilet training.
• Expulsive: Defies regulation, hostile, aggressive, cruel, destructive/messy.
• Retentive: Stubborn, stingy, materialistic, neat
• Phallic Stage (4-5): genital exploration and questions about marriage/relationships.
• Oedipus complex: son's sexual feelings towards mother.
• Castration anxiety: father will punish son by castration of balls.
• Defensive ID: identify with father.
• Electra complex: daughter's sexual feelings towards father.
• Penis envy: sexual inhibition.
• Masculinity complex: striving for achievement
• Normal femininity: passive and childbearing.
• Latency (5-6): work on same-sex relationships.
• Successful means long-term same-sex relationships, with further refinement of ID.
• Genital (puberty): work on sexual desire and relationships.
• Successful means socialization, genuine friendships, mature long-term relationships.

Instincts and Freudian Slips.

• Instincts: basic unit of personality; bridge between physical needs, wishes, and behavior.
• Aimed at relieving tension in body (hunger -> eat).
• Source: all psychic energy comes from biological processes in some organ.
• Pressure: the strength of the impulse.
• Aim: maintains homeostasis.
• Object: thing that is desired that fulfills the instinct.
• Eros: life instincts (sex, air, food, water).
• Thanatos: death instinct, unconscious suicide.
• All mental work is influenced by wishes/impulses.
• Forms include: primary pleasure principle (infancy, unguarded moments of adulthood) & secondary reality principle(demand of real world).
• Freudian slips come from fabricated excuses, fear of others thinking it's a lie, repressed guilt, and linguistic confusion.
• Dismissed, untestable.

Psychology of Advertising

• Subliminal advertising:
• Vicary, when its peak in 1950s, saw popcorn and coke profits increase.
• Embedding.
• See-through illusion.

Case Studies and Psychotherapy

• Freudian case studies involving Anna O.: hallucinations, paralysis from repressed memories which formed basis of psychoanalysis.
• Keys to psychotherapy:
• Relaxed therapeutic treatment.
• Free association -> once relaxed, conflicts become available for discussion.
• Recognition of resistance -> what a patient views as threatening.
• Transference -> therapist may act as object of emotion towards important others
• E.g., patient feels like they are talking to their father.
• Countertransference -> therapist reciprocates (responds to patient as father, treats them like their child).
• It is necessary.
• Catharsis: expressing emotion when trauma is recalled.
• Insight: becoming aware of trauma
• Help the patient get there on own, don't tell them yourself.
• Freudian ideas that reverberate/last: language, abnormality, hysteria, effective psychoanalytic techniques, advertising.
• Energy Flow: fixed amount of energy which motivates behavior
• Biological Emphasis: drives and needs.
• Conflicts: between person and environment.
• Developmental Perspective: examines stages of problems with reference to past history.
• Projective drawing:
• Widely believed to represent self-perception and body image.
• Erasing:
• For improvement -> well-adjusted and flexible.
• Placement:
• Center -> secure (most common).
• Right -> intellectualizing tendencies.
• Left -> impulsive, extravert, self-oriented.
• High -> high aspirations.
• Low -> defeatist attitude.
• Pressure:
• Consistent -> well-adjusted, stable.
• Heavy -> tense.
• Light -> timid, low energy.
• Size -> Average = 7 inches :
  • Large- aggressive.
  • Small: anxious.
• Head: site of intellectual and fantasy activity.
• Control of impulses, emotions, and socializing needs.
• Hair = Sexual relationship
• Facial features = Satisfies or dissastifies
• Eyes - views of self and others
• Nostrils - displaces sex symbol or social attitudes
• Connected to basic drives.
• Shoulder = The need to overpower others.
• Arms, fists and fingers shows social awareness.
• Feet and legs indicates feelings of stability.

Carl Jung: Analytical Psychology

• Born in 1875 in Switzerland.
• Death was very prevalent within childhood,
• Close ties to father
• Mother was emotionally unstable, causing distrust of women
• Experienced visions, which lead to him thinking he was psychotic leading him against the church, and seeking "god within".
• Broke from feud because it was disagreeable and they refused to converse .
• Suffered a neurotic episode -> self-analysis of dreams, study of eastern/western traditions, introspection.
• 3 differences from Freud:
• Development continues in into adolescence
• Developed Personality Typologies
• First to break from him, start of revolution against some Freud's ideas
• Jung's Libido: a neutral general psychic energy that can be altered
• A blocked creative life force is replaced with unconscious substitute or symbol.
• The Self encompasses Complete personality includes all current + opportunities contained.

Jung: Individuation, Ego Inflation, and Personality Structure

• Individuation involves restoring wholeness to the psyche in adult development.
• Childhood: psyches are unaware, yet comprehensive - recognizing limitations and emphasizing potentials.
• Adulthood: Psyche reintegration to focus on advantages and conquer vulnerabilities.
• Ego inflation in youth is characterized by over-acknowledgdment of awareness (social identity or strengths).
• Limited self-awareness during midlife result in midlife crises.
• The framework of personality:
• Aware ego.
• Unaware personal
• balancing in dreams, leading to prospective thinking.
• Group unaware
• shared family history and extraterrestrial entities
• Universal concepts ( e.g., sunrise).

Jung: Archetypes & the Word Association Test

• Models that shape experience
• TENDENCY, NOT the memory of an actual experience itself
• Shadow:
• Undesirable urges dont fit self image
• Prejudice stems from projection
• Represents demons
• Anima/Animus:
• Man's undeveloped emotional qualities men/unstable.
• Women seek authority
• Promotes understanding of opposite sex
• Stereotypes may be used
• Intimacy with accepted characteristics.
• Falling in love is satisfaction of having anima/us representative
• Persona is one does not show self often
• Can mislead perception of themselves(+/-).
• The hero character takes large risks and wins
• An outwitted trickster will bring good results. Mandala reflects order
• Symbolizes the conflict in dreams. Psychosis: Delusions
• Hallucinations
• Promoted by drugs Word association test
• Reveals mental processing.
• Answer as accurately as you can.
• Thoughts with like or like sounds are associated
• Words link to painful experiences hesitation,in ability.
• Familial tendencies

Freud & Jung Theories & Personality Typology

• Jung considered the relationship between sexual intentions and neural abnormalities.
• The directions in which interest,energy is focused:
• Outgoing individual
• Private person.
• Activities will depend on fundamental outlook
• "Basic four" = S I F J.
• Data collection methods consist of Intuition.
• Pay careful attention to details with perception of senses.
• Judgements are given to sensation.
• Reason guides to judge when sensing
• Male dominant thinking.
• Emotion affects Females dominance
• Judgements are made from previous knowledge
• Wait last minute of care given.
• A quickness by P
• Dominant Function: extrovert/ outward Libido
• The First choice is

Dream Analysis & Personality Disorders

• Auxiliary Function: reversed, one when extrovert prefers to be alone
• Dream Review

1. Bring the picture back to mind
2. Details and meaning for the subject becomes detailed
3. Waking creativity

• Into parts of Greek play:
• Characters- what matters to subject
• Exhibition- The Question
• Turning point- peak action
• Completion = "what should you do"
• Mental health diagnosis:
• DSM is guidelines for mental disease.
• Result after shock:
• High alertness from sensitivity.
• Distorted view of environment, dissociation
• Feelings of anxiety.
• Anti social/ avoiding Loss of spirit= Alienation

Trauma's Impact & Personality Disorders

• Causes that raise SA
• Social support vs emotional absence physical neglect
• Characteristics of trauma causes more
• Responses
• Caretakers who are useless.
• Child blaming
• Personality disorder= non flexible maladaptive issues
• Formerly classified as "II problems"
• Constant (1 year length)
• Progress during adolescence
• Types of patterns come from:
• Basic" normal" pattern
• Medical results witnessing a disorder
• Misunderstanding vacillating person
• Deviations manifest Cognition -> Affectivity
• Interpersonal control & Impulse control

Personality Disorders & Classification

• personality issues pervasive, causing severe impairment. Not by any medical condition.
• Medical book
• It is typical to categorise types of sickness
• Resulting in stereotyping.
• Pros = clarity.
• Cons- diagnostic traits are tough Dimensional point:
  • Versatility for info storage but lacks guidance is unclear.
• Categorical data is impossible 93 ways you can have a health problem

Ways to categorise

• Category A eccentric
• Category B is striking
• Category C troubled/ Afraid.
• The big 8 are anti social, schizoid,etc

Borderline & Other Personality Disorders

• R = the stimulus

• Methods and where gain stimulus and what.

• Independent or depends

• Wavering for decisiveness

• Loner

• Characteristics:

1. Must have trauma
2. Feelings of lack of control
3. Connections are on or off
4. Imbalanced pride 5 Self mutilation
5. History of trauma
6. Separated state

Dissociative, Histrionic, & Antisocial Disorders

• Personality types may/may not be mutually aware.
• Characteristics of 8
• Characteristics: Attention Deficit + seductive activity
• Influence other due relationships
• Unmindful disregard sense 15<= a conduct disorder for under
• Involves the episode from brain issues which causes lots of pleasure for a short time
• Narcissist: Self Right
• Has grand ideas

More on Schizoid & Other Personality Disorders

• Expects fantasies for prosperity
• Commands respect
• Behaviours is dominating. Dependent:
• Has to taken care of with fear in being alone

1. Has trouble with choices
2. Won't state feelings
3. Has challenges in getting started.
4. Goes far to stay supported
5. Thinks someone is to aid
6. Averting help avoids

• Schitzoid
• Avoid communication + doesn't feel.
• Prefers personal activity .
• Nonintrested in relations and cold Obsessive person :
• Always feels as if they must do the tasks themselves.

Avoidant, & Passive-Aggressive Disorders

• Unpredictability and perfection is placed to avoid mistakes from self.
• Antisocial:
• Afraid of communication:
• Doesn't risk
• Passive aggressive:. A) Resisting task B) Disagreement and envy
• Unhappy
• Confrontation leads to anger
• Self vs others vacillate/avoidant.
• Self always in action