Rwandan Genocide: Causes & Key Events

Rwandan Genocide Overview

• Use of force was a key characteristic of the Rwandan Genocide.
• Rape was used as a tool of war during the genocide.
• Machetes were a primary tool for carrying out the killings.
• Both Tutsi and Hutu moderates were targeted during the genocide, highlighting its complexity.
• Propaganda played a crucial role in inciting violence.
• Tutsis were dehumanized through propaganda, referred to as "Tutsi cockroaches" and equated to animals.
• Radio was the main medium for spreading hate speech and broadcasting lists of individuals to be murdered.
• Approximately 800,000 people were killed by July during the genocide.
• The role of foreigners was significant, with UN forces withdrawing after only three days.

Long Term Causes: Imperialism

• "New imperialism" and the "Scramble for Africa" occurred between 1880 and 1914.
• The Berlin Conference of 1884-5 formalized the division of Africa among European powers.
• By 1880, only 10% of Africa was colonized by European powers.
• This period coincided with the Industrial Revolution, driving the need for Africa's resources.
• By 1914, only 10% of Africa remained uncolonized.

Colonial Motives

• Natural resources (diamonds, gold) and economic motives drove imperialism.
• Lenin argued that imperialism was a direct continuation of capitalism.
• Racial theories like Social Darwinism promoted the idea of survival of the fittest between races.
• Europeans believed in the "White man's burden," considering it their duty to bring culture, morality, and religion to other parts of the world.
• The "Scramble for Africa" gained momentum as traditional powers (Britain, France) sought to maintain dominance over emerging powers (Germany, USA, Japan).

Ethnonationalism

• Belgian rule in Rwanda (1919-1959) cultivated ethnonationalism, contributing to the genocide.
• The Belgians continued the social structure that elevated the Tutsi minority, ruling over the Hutu population.
• Despite this, integration existed between Hutu and Tutsi since the 14th century, including marriage, culture, and a common language, Kinyarwanda.
• A small ethnic divide was transformed into a chasm.
• Tutsis were prioritized as the ruling class, learning French, which was used for all documentation and administration.
• Ethnic identity cards added legitimacy to the orchestrated myth of ethnic division and Tutsi superiority.

Belgian Rule and Its Impact

• Germans established a pre-colonial kingdom with Tutsi ruling over Hutu.
• Belgians continued this social structure, believing in Tutsi superiority and streamlining governance.
• Upon migrating in the 14th century, Tutsis absorbed much of Hutu culture with long term integration.
• Belgians shifted from indirect to direct rule.
• Coffee introduced as a commodity crop with forced labor.
• Unequal exploitation of resources damaged Hutu-Tutsi relations.
• Colonizers created a race theory that Tutsis "invaded" Hutu land, used by Hutu extremists later.
• Narratives of Tutsi supremacy reinforced social stereotypes, laying the groundwork for genocide and racist policies.
• Christianity was made compulsory for the Tutsi elite, who were then used in civil service to administer Belgian rule.
• The myth of Tutsi superiority suited colonists as they could use Tutsis to enforce their rule.
• Tutsi rulers were content to be used by the Europeans in this way to strengthen their racial superiority.
• Education was prioritized for Tutsis, with subjects like mathematics being taught, while Hutu children were offered singing classes and natural sciences.
• A 1933 census led to the imposition of an identity card system, classifying ethnicity.

Post-Belgian Rule Political Developments

• PARMEHUTU, a Hutu party for emancipation, was founded in 1957.
• The Rwandan revolution occurred after King Mutari III's death in July 1959, triggering ethnic violence.
• Hutu masses, under PARMEHUTU, staged an uprising.
• Roughly 10,000-100,000 Tutsi died here.
• Became independent on July 1, 1962 placing Hutu in power.

Children of '59' and the RPF

• These were Tutsi rebel movements formed by refugees fleeing Hutu violence.
• Targeted by Hutus, Tutsis fled to neighboring countries like Zaire, Uganda, Tanzania, and Burundi, launching attacks on Rwanda.
• There was a need for regime change, and a political vacuum following the death of King Mutari III.

Examination of Sources (Source R)

• According to Source R, the advantages of the colonial system for the Tutsi in Rwanda included: political and economic monopoly, social supremacy, and support from the Belgian government.
• Source R is valuable for an historian as it gives insight into the experiences of Hutus during Belgian rule in Rwanda.
• A limitation of Source R is that gives a biased perspective of the Hutu struggles and also misses out the perspectives and experiences of non-Hutus.

Revolution to Independence

• Rwanda became a UN trust territory in 1946, transitioning towards democracy and independence.
• Political parties were permitted, leading to the formation of PARMEHUTU (Hutu) and UNAR (Tutsi).
• After King Mutari III's death in July 1959, the Rwandan Revolution began with ethnic violence.
• The revolution led to an estimated 10,000-100,000 Tutsi deaths, with Hutus establishing a provisional government.
• Tutsi refugees formed rebel movements like the Children of '59 and the RPF.
• Rwanda became independent under Hutu rule in 1962, with Tutsi comprising 10% of the population.

First and Second Republics

• The First Republic President Kayibanda (1963-73) exhibited Hutu one-party rule, ethnic racism, anti-Tutsi (cockroach) sentiment.
• Both sides militarized, with the Tutsi RPF launching insurgencies from neighboring countries.
• President Habyarimana (1973-90) came to power via coup, reinforcing ethnic divisions.
• Habyarimana's wife (Agathe) had Hutu nobility connections and close involvement with the Akazu, that orchestrated the 1994 genocide.
• Agathe Habyarimana was seen as the "power behind the throne".

Economic Factors and Malthusian Theory

• Rwanda's dependency on coffee and population density created a breeding ground for conflict.
• Densely populated, under difficult circumstances, fosters violence.
• Coffee dependency: singular agrarian product makes the state vulnerable to price drops and economic conditions.

Civil War and the "Genocide Cable"

• October 1990: Paul Kagame's RPF attacked from Uganda.
• A radical Hutu Power Movement emerged, promoting division and extremism.
• Groups like Interahamwe, Network Zero, and CDR were formed.
• Media was used to spread ethnic hatred, with "cockroaches" as a slur for Tutsi.
• Kangura magazine and RTLM radio promoted Hutu nationalism.
• The Hutu Ten Commandments were promoted.

Media's Role

• Radio incited ethnic hatred more effectively than Kangura magazine, with 3k copies per month.

Examination of Sources (Source T)

• Source T suggests radio spread hate speech shown in the phrase "We need to eradicate this race of cockroaches".
• Radio broadcasts news (news of President Habyarimana's death).
• Radio broadcasts are available for children.

Confessing Perpetrator Analysis

• The origin of the source is an interview with a confessing perpetrator with a firsthand account of motivations for the genocide.
• The source was written almost 10 years after the genocide, which has the value of a whole overview of the entire genocide, rather than a specific moment.
• The essays on "The Media and the Rwandan Genocide," are relevant to the historian studying the role of media, specifically to RTLM specialized, with a focus.
• A limitations is that interviewer is doing too much guiding via guiding questions.
• RTLM: "Only hearing it could not have any impact. People were forced to kill by those soldiers. But simply hearing the radio could not do anything."
• "Peasants like us did not even have radios" changed to "He now admits that he had a small radio."

"Shadow of Somalia"

• The "Somalia Syndrome" refers to US reluctance to intervene after the "greatest military humiliation for America since Vietnam."
• Clinton used the UN as a scapegoat, and the effects have been called ‘the shadow of Somalia’, or ‘Somalia syndrome’.
• The US feared losing more lives in foreign interventions, leading to non-commitment in Rwanda.
• UNAMIR was under-informed, understaffed, and undersupplied.

UNAMIR's Inadequacy

• Once on the ground, Dallaire (the leader of UNAMIR) heard that ‘civilian self-defense’ groups were being armed with guns and machetes by the Hutu Power Movement.
• Dallaire was ignored, and told to inform Habyarimana of the informant!
• Less than 4 months later the whole scenario would be played out, while UN staff is still understaffed, underarmed.

"Genocide Cable"

• Dallaire sent the "genocide cable," revealing plans to kill Tutsi at a rate of 1,000 every 20 minutes.

Orchestrated Genocide

• The pulling out of peace forces, limiting military means, led to the orchestrated genocide.
• Failure to jam the radio to stop hate speech helped to facilitate and exacerbate the conflict.
• Operation Turquoise (set up safe zone, perpetrators used it to escape punishment)

Post-Genocide Justice

• ICTR aimed for justice, while Gacaca courts aimed for reconciliation.
• Issues with ICTR: jurisdictional issues, understaffing, selective charges, limited scope.
• Achievements of ICTR: Jean Paul Akayesu) convicted for rape as a crime against humanity and Jean Kambanda was the first man to plead guilty to the charge of genocide.

Rwanda Grassroot Movement

• In 1999 the Rwandan government established the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, in order to administer justice.
• The defendants were given shorter sentences in exchange for confessing and asking for forgiveness from victims’ families.
• They tried about 2 million people in the 10 year period before they closed, hugely effective, and it cost $40 million.
• Gacaca honours a storytelling tradition in rwanda, and works for the community.

Socio-political and Economic Impact

• Victims and perpetrators live side by side (Philip Gourevitch quote).
• Largest refugee crisis in UN history: 1.2-1.5 million fled.

Genocide Causes

• The immediate cause was Habyarimana's plane crash on April 6, 1994.
• An Imperial Legacy fostered ethnic divisions.
• Identity Cards and socio-economic instability contributed to the genocide.
• Drastic fall of coffee prices in the 1980s worsened Rwanda;s economic situation and Mathus economic theory.
• Political motivations (Canon) coupled with parameters of extreme poverty and Colonial rule exacterbated divisions and led to the genocide.

"Inyenzi" (Cockroaches)

• The role of media, Kanagura magazine, published Hutu 10 commandments
• RTLM radio quotes were significant due to high illiteracy.

International Inaction Post Plane Crash.

• Racism: Mark Doyle and Somalia Syndrome lead to international inaction.

Key Causes of the Conflict

• Ethnic tensions and Colonial legacy
• Media Role
• Rwandan Civil War (1990-1993)
• Assassination of Habyarimana

Examination of Timeline

Grégoire Kayibanda (1963-73)

• PRESIDENT
• Party: Republican Democratic Movement
• Presidential term: 26 October 1961 - 5 July 1973
• Importance of Christian faith and hard work. Ruled over The First Republic

Habyarimana (1973-1990)

• PRESIDENT
• Party: National Revolutionary Movement for Development
• Presidential term: 5 July 1973 - 6 April 1994
• Wife - Agathe Habyarimana the ‘power behind the throne’
• Ruled over The Second Republic
• Pro-Hutu military rule further reinforced ethnic divisions

Bagosora

• CHIEF OF STAFF IN THE MINISTRY OF GOV. LEADERSHIP
• The colonial system for the Tutsi in Rwanda had neighbours against neighbour as hate speech lead neighbours to kill ech other over propaganda.
• The role of foreigners/international community, lead Tutsi and Hutu moderates to lose the power
• The first inhabitants of Rwanda were the Twa (Hunter-gatherers).
• The Hutu came in the 5-11th century and the Tutsi came in the 14th century

Motives for New Imperialism

• Natural resources and economic motives - diamonds, gold, people (Communist, don’t need more territory because of sharing).
• Racial theories - ‘Social Darwinism’ and survival of the fittest between races.

Belgian Rule (1919-1959) and Nationalism

From Belgian Rule to Independence (Cannon pg.28-31)

• The Belgian believed that the Tutsi were superior and made governance more efficient.
• Unequal exploitation of Rwanda's resources damaged the cooperative working environment established between Hutu and Tutsi (slight inferior because Tutsi gained Power).

Actions by the Belgians

• Cultivated by early Europeans and used to exercise control
• Tutsi gained influence through cattle control, the Colonizers reinforced this superior ideology.
• Belgians extended education by giving Treatment to Tutsi and forced Ethnic identity using classification.
• From 1957 that was the Hutus formed PARMEHUTU or largest party for Hutu emancipation.

From 1959 Revolution

• When the Hutu masses staged uprisings under PARMEHUTU most people died, nearly all Tutsi, with Rwanda’s first ethnically-driven conflict.
• During the Hutu revolution, many Tutsi fled to refugee settlements in neighbouring countries, like Rwandan Pacific Front (RPF).

Review of sources (R)

The First and Second Republics (1963-1990)

• The First Republic (1963-73) under President Kayibanda was characterised by one-party Hutu rule and ethnic racism which dehumanized Tutsi by calling them Cockroaches.
• The Second Republic (1973-90) was ushered in by an army coup led by the Hutu army chief of staff, Major-General Juvenal Habyarimana which lead to genocide. Wife (Agathe) help support in power.
• Democracy introduced in 1962 caused radical change and upset the balance of the status quo which had existed since the arrival of the Europeans.

Economic Factors, which increased the ethnic tensions Cannon (pg. 37-38

• 800 inhabitants per square km (majority lived in poverty) cause rapid birth rates.
• The major cash crop was coffee that heavily depended on world prices
• Environmental factors of population growth, land pressure and unsustainable agricultural practice lead to the breakout of violence in 1994.
• Declining land yields (Hutu peasants fearful of future and willing to listen to propaganda disseminated to them by Habyariamana regime .
• the scarcity of economic resources with one of Africa’s highest population growth rates lead to great economic challenges.
• As a Malthusian theory – is it applicable

THE RADIO

• Due to being illiterate everyone leaded towards the radio because it’s easier.
• Kangura published the Hutu Ten Commandments as the man has more power over women.

February 1993:

• Heavily supported by the French.
• Reduce the power of the dictator in kind authoritarian by the international organization.
• Establishment of abroad best tradition government to include power-sharing hutu and tutsi.

June -July 1994

Key factors

• US public want out
• April 1994: assassination of President Juvenal Habyarimana acted as a trigger for the genocide Extremists within the Hutu Power movement used this event to justify the mass killing of Tutsis and moderate Hutus
• 9th April Hutu leadership had interim government in place and led by a Bagasora
• International support ranged Non-existent, to tokenistic to actually enabling genocide.
• Racism lead to tokenistic support.

Post Actions

• After math leaded to Rwanda has created overwhelming issues .
• Lack of a coherent policy
• Administrative failings
• Scarcity of funds
• Differences in the concept of what constitutes justice(Paul Kagame leaded in 17 years)

The ICTR was the one who lead the achievement the most out of people in the RTLM and magazines by saying it was crime of humanity.