Russian History: 1885 to 1917

• The period from 1885 to 1964 in Russia was marked by significant upheaval, including war, revolution, and changes in leadership.

Tsarist Russia (up to 1917)

• Alexander III (1881-1894) adopted reactionary policies, reversing some of the reforms of his predecessor, Alexander II.
• Under Alexander III, there was a policy of Russification, aimed at suppressing non-Russian cultures within the empire.
• Nicholas II (1894-1917) continued autocratic rule, proving unable to address Russia's growing social and political problems.
• Rapid industrialization led to poor working conditions, social unrest, and the growth of revolutionary movements.
• The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) was a humiliating defeat for Russia, exposing the government's incompetence.
• The 1905 Revolution was triggered by Bloody Sunday, where peaceful protestors were shot by soldiers.
• As a result of the 1905 Revolution, Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, granting some civil rights and establishing the Duma.
• The Dumas were largely ineffective due to limitations imposed by the Tsar.
• Stolypin's reforms aimed at creating a class of peasant landowners, but they had limited success and he was assassinated in 1911.
• Russia entered World War I in 1914, which placed immense strain on the country's resources and further exposed the government's weaknesses.
• Military defeats, economic hardship, and social unrest led to the February Revolution of 1917.
• Nicholas II abdicated in 1917, ending the Romanov dynasty.

Provisional Government (1917)

• The Provisional Government, formed after the February Revolution, was intended to be temporary, pending the election of a Constituent Assembly.
• It shared power with the Petrograd Soviet, representing workers and soldiers, leading to a period of dual power.
• The Provisional Government continued the war effort, which was unpopular and contributed to its downfall.
• The government failed to address key issues such as land redistribution and food shortages.

Bolshevik Revolution (October 1917)

• Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, returned to Russia in April 1917 and called for an immediate socialist revolution.
• The Bolsheviks gained support by promising "peace, land, and bread."
• The October Revolution, led by Lenin and Trotsky, overthrew the Provisional Government.
• The Bolsheviks established a communist state, with Lenin as its leader.

Russian Civil War (1917-1922)

• The Bolsheviks (Reds) fought against the White forces, who were a diverse group including monarchists, liberals, and other anti-Bolshevik factions.
• Foreign powers, including Britain, France, and the United States, intervened in the Civil War on the side of the Whites.
• The Reds ultimately won the Civil War due to strong leadership, a centralized command, and control of key industrial areas.
• War communism was implemented by the Bolsheviks to control the economy and ensure supplies for the Red Army.

Lenin's Russia (1922-1924)

• In 1922, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was established.
• The New Economic Policy (NEP) was introduced in 1921, allowing some private enterprise and market mechanisms to revive the economy after the Civil War.
• Lenin died in 1924, leading to a power struggle among Bolshevik leaders.

Stalin's Era (1924-1953)

• Joseph Stalin emerged as the leader of the Soviet Union after defeating his rivals, including Leon Trotsky.
• Stalin implemented a policy of collectivization of agriculture, forcing peasants onto collective farms.
• Collectivization led to widespread resistance, famine (especially in Ukraine), and the deaths of millions.
• The First Five-Year Plan (1928-1932) focused on rapid industrialization, with ambitious targets for heavy industry.
• Stalin launched the Great Purge in the 1930s, eliminating political opponents, military leaders, and intellectuals through show trials, executions, and imprisonment in labor camps (Gulags).
• Propaganda and censorship were used extensively to control information and promote Stalin's cult of personality.
• The Soviet Union entered World War II in 1941 after being invaded by Nazi Germany.
• The Soviet Union played a crucial role in defeating Nazi Germany, but suffered immense casualties.
• After World War II, Stalin established Soviet control over Eastern Europe, leading to the Cold War.

Post-Stalin Era (1953-1964)

• After Stalin's death in 1953, there was a period of collective leadership.
• Nikita Khrushchev emerged as the dominant leader by the mid-1950s.
• Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes in his "Secret Speech" at the 20th Party Congress in 1956, initiating a period of de-Stalinization.
• Khrushchev introduced reforms aimed at improving living standards and decentralizing economic planning.
• The Virgin Lands Campaign sought to increase agricultural production by cultivating new areas of land.
• The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.
• Khrushchev was removed from power in 1964 due to his erratic leadership and policy failures.