Respiratory System Anatomy: Nasopharynx, Oropharynx, Laryngopharynx, Larynx
137 Questions
1 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the function of the mucosa membrane in the stomach and intestines?

  • Protection against corrosive acids
  • Has epithelial folds for expansion and increasing surface area (correct)
  • Release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers
  • Serves as a barrier against bacteria

    • Which layer of the digestive tract is responsible for protecting tissues from corrosive acids and enzymes?

  • Submucosa
  • Mucosa (correct)
  • Muscularis
  • Serosa/adventitia

    • What is the main function of Excretion in the digestive system?

  • Physical manipulation of solid foods
  • Removal of wastes from body fluids (correct)
  • Ingestion of food
  • Chemical breakdown of food

    • What happens during Absorption in the digestive process?

    <p>Movement of small molecules across digestive epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the digestive system is involved in Mechanical processing?

    <p>Tongue and teeth in oral cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of Secretion in the digestive system?

    <p>Release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers by digestive tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the digestive tract provides a nonspecific defense against bacteria?

    <p>Mucosa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final step in the digestive process involving waste removal?

    <p>(defecation) Waste is discharged as feces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the afferent arteriole in the kidney?

    <p>Facilitates greater blood flow in the capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does pressure increase in the kidneys due to the efferent arteriole?

    <p>Limits blood flow out of the capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) a measure of?

    <p>Amount of filtrate formed by both kidneys per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Hydrostatic Pressure (HP) affect fluid movement?

    <p>Pushes fluid out of the container</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Colloid Osmotic Pressure (COP) created by in the kidney environment?

    <p>Proteins or solutes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When will water move out according to hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressures?

    <p>When HP is greater than COP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure (GHP) related to?

    <p>Pressure within the glomerular capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Capsular Colloid Osmotic Pressure (CCOP) influenced by?

    <p>Solutes already in the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the greater omentum?

    <p>Drapes a 'fatty apron' over the transverse colon and small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are compounds that do not dissociate called?

    <p>Non-electrolytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do lingual tonsils situate?

    <p>At base of tongue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of fluid balance, what does excess gain require?

    <p>Selective elimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the falciform ligament?

    <p>Attaches liver to anterior wall and diaphragm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes electrolyte balance?

    <p>Constant ion levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do salivary glands play in the oral cavity?

    <p>Secrete saliva into the oral cavity to lubricate, dissolve, and begin food breakdown</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the production of H+ ions being equal to their loss indicate in acid-base balance?

    <p>Equilibrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor results in a greater hold of water in muscle compared to adipose tissue?

    <p>Muscle activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the cheeks in the oral cavity?

    <p>Together with lips, teeth, and gums form the oral vestibule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the intracellular fluid volume compare to the plasma volume?

    <p>$25L$ : $12L$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part separates the oral nasal cavity and forms the roof of the mouth?

    <p>Hard palate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of mesenteries in the abdominal cavity?

    <p>Help stabilize the position of abdominal organs and prevent entanglement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which body fluid compartment provides a constant environment?

    <p>ECF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Orbicularis Oris' muscles are primarily found in which part of the oral cavity?

    <p>'Fleshy folds' containing orbicularis oris muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What remains relatively constant in terms of fluid balance?

    <p>$H_2O$ levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelium lines the nasopharynx for the exchange of small amounts of air with auditory tubes?

    <p>Pseudostratified ciliated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT part of the larynx?

    <p>Hyoid bone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the epiglottis during swallowing?

    <p>It folds back over the glottis to prevent entry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ligaments extend across the larynx between the thyroid and smaller cartilages?

    <p>False vocal cords</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the true vocal cords in the larynx?

    <p>Produce sound for speech</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which muscle type connects cartilages and structures in the throat?

    <p>Extrinsic muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes variation in pitch related to tension in the vocal cords?

    <p>Tension changes in the folds of the vocal cords</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by viscous mucus impairing cilia and blocking air passageways?

    <p>Cystic fibrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the only layer present in capillaries located?

    <p>Tunica intima</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when there is incompetence in the valves of veins?

    <p>Blood tends to pool</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of peripheral veins' increased number of valves?

    <p>Facilitate blood flow back to the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the heart's circulation carries 30-35% of the blood volume?

    <p>Systemic circulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what direction does blood flow from the right ventricle to lung arterioles in pulmonary circulation?

    <p>To pulmonary veins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of blood vessels contains smooth muscle in both arteries and veins?

    <p>Tunica media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates venules from veins in terms of blood entry?

    <p>Blood in venules enters progressively larger channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines pulmonary circulation in the heart's blood flow?

    <p>'Venous blood moves from right atrium to right ventricle to lung arterioles and capillaries.'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which force encourages fluid to leave the glomerular capillaries and move into the capsular space?

    <p>Colloids' affinity for water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Equilibrium Filtration Pressure (EFP) represent in the context of fluid dynamics in the kidneys?

    <p>Net pressure favoring fluid filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of Myogenic Mechanism in regulating Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

    <p>Decreasing GFR with increasing blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is directly correlated with the body's systemic blood pressure?

    <p>Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure (GHP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does an increase in afferent arteriole diameter affect Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

    <p>Increases GFR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could be a consequence of decreased Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) due to lowered systemic blood pressure?

    <p>Renal failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which combination of forces make up the Equilibrium Filtration Pressure (EFP) in the kidneys?

    <p>(GHP + CHP) - (GCOP + CCOP)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor triggers smooth muscle contraction in afferent arterioles resulting in decreased blood flow and Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)?

    <p>'Stretching' due to increased blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of macula densa cells in the kidney?

    <p>Detect solute levels in the distal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells release erythropoietin to stimulate the production of red blood cells?

    <p>Juxtaglomerular cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney?

    <p>Detect solute levels in the renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is activated when macula densa cells signal low solutes or glomerular filtration rate?

    <p>Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates a series of enzymatic reactions known as RAS?

    <p>Renin release due to low GFR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells in the kidney are responsible for determining the status of solute levels in the distal convoluted tubule?

    <p>Macula densa cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormones are secreted by macula densa and juxtaglomerular cells?

    <p>Erythropoietin and renin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe compounds that do not dissociate into ions?

    <p>Non-electrolytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which body fluid compartment facilitates intracellular chemical reactions?

    <p>Intracellular fluid (ICF)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main factor that influences the greater hold of water in muscle compared to adipose tissue?

    <p>Muscle structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of fluid balance, what does excess loss require?

    <p>Selective elimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the extracellular fluid (ECF) compartment?

    <p>Transporting substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the phosphate buffer system?

    <p>Regulates phosphate ions in ECF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In maintaining acid-base balance, what happens when there is a shortage of H+?

    <p>Kidneys reabsorb more bicarbonate ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system respond to excess H+?

    <p>Increases CO2 levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of respiratory compensation in acid-base balance?

    <p>Regulation of pH by changing CO2 levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If the blood pH exceeds normal limits, what would be the expected result on respiration?

    <p>Increase in CO2 levels and H+ concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during prolonged hyperventilation in relation to blood pH?

    <p>Alkalosis due to increased respiration rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the kidneys respond to an increase in blood pH?

    <p>Secrete more H+ and absorb more bicarbonate ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of carbolic acid Bicarbonate buffer system?

    <p>Bicarbonate ion synthesized and reabsorbed by kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Superior vena cava in the circulatory system?

    <p>Supplies blood to the head, neck, upper extremities, and thoracic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the Veins of the upper limb receive blood from according to the text?

    <p>Deep and superficial systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the body are the Extensions of capillaries mentioned in the text?

    <p>Brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main source of blood for Inferior vena cava according to the provided text?

    <p>Lower extremities and abdomen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the body receives blood supply from branches of subclavian arteries and descending thoracic aorta?

    <p>Thorax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the Veins of the head and neck drain into according to the text?

    <p>Dural sinuses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one significant feature of the Systemic Circulation mentioned in the text?

    <p>Vessels decrease in size as they unite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the Veins of the thorax and abdomen based on their drainage outlets?

    <p>'Drain into brachiocephalic and external iliac veins'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the specialized area in the heart composed of myocytes that can spontaneously depolarize called?

    <p>Conduction network</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure initiates each heartbeat and sets the pace for the heart's contractions?

    <p>Sinoatrial node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe the property of being able to spontaneously initiate depolarization in heart muscle cells?

    <p>Autorhythmicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does the heart not require the central nervous system (CNS) to maintain its rhythm?

    <p>Due to the presence of specialized pacemaker cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when autorhythmic cells in the heart reach a specific threshold?

    <p>An action potential is initiated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the rhythmic electrical activity produced by autorhythmic cells in the heart?

    <p>Autorhythmic depolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the specialized pacemaker cells located that initiate each heartbeat in the heart's conduction system?

    <p>Right atrial wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characteristic allows autorhythmic cells in the heart to start an action potential without external stimulation?

    <p>'Spontaneous depolarization' ability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM (RASS) in the kidney?

    <p>To regulate resistance in afferent and efferent arterioles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the release of renin in the kidneys?

    <p>Low solutes and low GFR detected by macula densa cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the macula densa cells located within the kidney?

    <p>Near the renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney?

    <p>Detect stretching of the afferent arteriole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone is responsible for stimulating the production of red blood cells?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What enzymatic reactions are set off by renin in response to low solutes/GFR?

    <p>RAS (Renin-Angiotensin System)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are juxtaglomerular cells predominantly found within the kidney?

    <p>Around the afferent arteriole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do macula densa cells act as in the kidney environment?

    <p>Chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might be the consequence of hypotension leading to hypo-perfusion of critical organs?

    <p>Development of shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lymphatics leaving nodes to form principal lymphatic trunks?

    <p>Draining excess interstitial fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lacteals in lymphatic capillaries?

    <p>Greater permeability to absorb proteins and lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What causes lymphedema, resulting in limb swelling?

    <p>Accumulation of interstitial fluid due to lymphatic drainage blockage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does lymph flow through the lymphatic capillaries and vessels?

    <p>Against gravity from central body towards periphery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the skeletal muscle pump in the flow of lymph?

    <p>Forcing lymph toward the heart through vessel compression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what way does respiratory lymph flow contribute to the movement of lymph?

    <p>Helps with an upward movement of lymph during exhalation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Milking action' is a term associated with which process in the context of lymph flow?

    <p>Contraction of muscles to compress lymphatic vessels and force lymph toward heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the countercurrent exchanger in the kidney system?

    <p>Maintaining urine concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the recycling of urea, what is the role of the medullary collecting system?

    <p>Passive diffusion of urea out of filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What drives the process of osmosis in renal filtration and urine concentration?

    <p>Concentration gradient in the interstitial fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of renal clearance measurement?

    <p>Calculating glomerular filtration rate (GFR)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the micturition reflex contribute to urine ejection?

    <p>Inducing relaxation of external sphincters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common cause of adult urinary incontinence related to muscle weakness?

    <p>Weakness of deep pelvic floor muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the vasa recta contribute to maintaining a concentration gradient in the medulla?

    <p>Supporting delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does ADH have on water reabsorption in the medullary collecting duct?

    <p>Increases water reabsorption in response to decreased blood osmolarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lymphatic organ secretes thymosin to stimulate cell division and T cell maturation?

    <p>Thymus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune cells account for 25% of circulating White Blood Cells (WBCs) in the body?

    <p>Lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which organ do plasma cells primarily develop from B cells to produce antibodies?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which lymphoid organ is the largest collection of lymphoid tissue in the body and functions in the removal of microbes from blood?

    <p>Spleen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune response involves T cells defending against abnormal and infected cells in the body?

    <p>Cell-mediated immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lymphocytes found in the lymph nodes during an immune response?

    <p>Activate T cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers a cell-mediated attack against recipient tissue in graft versus host disease?

    <p>Activated T cells from the recipient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which autoimmune disease is characterized by antibodies that mimic Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)?

    <p>Graves Disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In autoimmune diseases involving antibody reactions, which condition involves antibodies preventing the binding of Acetylcholine (Ach) to its receptors?

    <p>Myasthenia Gravis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which autoimmune disease involves T cells and macrophages attacking the myelin sheath of nerves?

    <p>Multiple sclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune response fails to develop or is blocked in immunodeficiency diseases?

    <p>Cell-mediated immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do autoimmune disorders primarily target in the body?

    <p>Self cells and tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In immunotherapy for cancer, what is the goal of using antibodies like Herceptin?

    <p>Neutralize growth factors responsible for cancer cell growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Grafts' that lead to an immune response when transplanted between people (non-twins) are known as:

    <p>Allografts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Immunosuppression' in allograft recipients primarily targets which aspect of immunity?

    <p>Both cellular and humoral immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principal type of hypersensitivity reaction characterized by IgE antibodies combining with antigens?

    <p>Type I (anaphylactic) reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which immune response involves the activation of T cells and B cells to inactivate pathogens and abnormal cells?

    <p>Adaptive immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common mediator involved in triggering anaphylactic shock by causing vasodilation of peripheral blood vessels?

    <p>Histamines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In autoimmune diseases, what is the purpose of producing IgG instead of IgE through desensitization?

    <p>To block IgE-mediated allergic reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hypersensitivity reaction involves prolonged contraction of smooth muscles triggered by leukotrienes and prostaglandins?

    <p>Type I (anaphylactic) reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the immediate trigger for degranulation in anaphylactic reactions characterized by an immediate response?

    <p>Antibodies combining with receptors on mast cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Nasopharynx

    • Located from internal nares to soft palate
    • Pseudostratified ciliated epithelium
    • Exchanges small amounts of air with auditory tubes

    Oropharynx

    • Located from soft palate to hyoid bone
    • Stratified squamous epithelium
    • Contains palatine and lingual tonsils

    Laryngopharynx

    • Located from hyoid bone to esophagus
    • Stratified epithelium
    • Contains epiglottis, thyroid cartilage, and cricoid cartilage
    • 2 pairs of smaller cartilages: arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform

    Larynx

    • Consists of 9 pieces of cartilage
    • Epiglottis folds back to prevent food from entering trachea during swallowing
    • Thyroid cartilage forms the Adam's apple
    • Cricoid cartilage provides support and protects the glottis and trachea

    Vocal Cords

    • Upper ligaments: false vocal cords
    • Lower folds: true vocal cords (principal structures in voice production)
    • Tension in vocal cords affects pitch

    Trachea

    • Also known as the windpipe
    • Located anterior to esophagus and attached to cricoid cartilage
    • Branches into bronchi
    • Semi-circular cartilaginous rings protect the airway

    Bronchi

    • Primary bronchi divide into secondary lobar bronchi
    • Secondary bronchi branch into tertiary segmental bronchi
    • Bronchioles: narrow, cartilage-free, and dominated by smooth muscle
    • Diameter of passageway controlled by sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

    Digestive System

    • Consists of a muscular tube (digestive tract) and accessory organs
    • Functions: ingestion, mechanical processing, digestion, secretion, absorption, and excretion

    Digestive Tract Layers

    • Mucosa: protects tissues from corrosive acids and enzymes
    • Submucosa: provides mechanical support
    • Muscularis: contracts and relaxes to mix and propel food
    • Serosa/Adventitia: outermost layer

    Urinary Physiology

    • Filtration: glomerular hydrostatic pressure (GHP) > capsular colloid osmotic pressure (CCOP)
    • Balance: input = output
    • Fluid balance: fluid gained = fluid lost
    • Electrolyte balance: no net gain or loss of ions

    Acid-Base Balance

    • Regulated by buffer systems: protein, phosphate, and bicarbonate
    • Respiratory compensation: exhalation of CO2 and H+ buffering
    • Renal compensation: H+ excretion and bicarbonate ion reabsorption

    Lymphatic System

    • Components: vessels, fluid, lymphocytes, lymphoid tissues and organs
    • Functions: production, maintenance, distribution of lymphocytes, return of fluid and solutes, and hormone and nutrient distribution

    Lymphatic Vessels

    • Capillaries: smallest vessels, absorb proteins and lipids
    • Trunks and ducts: lymphatics unite to form principle lymphatic trunks
    • Thoracic duct: main return of venous blood

    Skeletal Muscle Pump

    • Contractions compress lymphatic vessels, forcing lymph toward the heart### The Heart as a Pump
    • Initiates each heartbeat through the sinoatrial (SA) node, which is located in the right atrial wall and has specialized pacemaker cells with an intrinsic rhythm called autorhythmicity.
    • Autorhythmic cells spontaneously depolarize at a given rate, resulting in an action potential that starts when cells reach threshold.

    Regulation of Blood Pressure

    • BP drop: arterioles dilate, increasing blood flow and GFR (glomerular filtration rate).
    • Vasoconstriction: decreases blood flow into the glomerulus.
    • Vasodilation: increases blood flow into the glomerulus.

    Renal Regulation

    • Tubuloglomerular feedback: a localized response that regulates the size of afferent and efferent arterioles, depending on the functioning of macula densa cells and juxtaglomerular cells.
    • Macula densa cells: chemoreceptors that determine the status of the filtrate in the distal convoluted tubule.
    • Juxtaglomerular cells: mechanoreceptors that detect stretching of the afferent arteriole and release renin when solutes/GFR are too low.

    Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAS)

    • Renin release: triggers a series of enzymatic reactions to regulate blood pressure.
    • Erythropoietin: stimulates production of RBCs.

    Countercurrent Systems

    • Countercurrent multiplier system: fluid travels in opposite directions, with Na, K, and Ca actively transported from filtrate into interstitial fluid.
    • Recycling of urea: medullary collecting system reabsorbs urea, concentrating it in the interstitial fluid.
    • Countercurrent exchanger: maintains the concentration gradient in the medulla.

    Urine Composition and Regulation

    • Urine contains: water, Na, K, Cl, H, phosphate, sulfates, metabolic wastes, and small amounts of bicarbonate, Ca, and Mg.
    • Renal clearance: measures the rate at which the kidneys remove a substance from the blood.
    • Regulation of urine concentration: depends on the concentration gradient in the interstitial fluid.

    Micturition Reflex

    • Stretch receptors in the bladder wall stimulate the brain, leading to the contraction of the detrusor muscle and the relaxation of the internal and external sphincters.
    • Voluntary relaxation of the external urethral sphincter causes the relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter, resulting in urination.

    Urinary Incontinence

    • Lack of voluntary control, resulting in the involuntary loss of urine.
    • Types: stress, urge, overflow, and functional incontinence.

    Overview of the Urinary System

    • Filtration produces a filtrate resembling blood plasma.
    • Reabsorption and secretion occur in the proximal convoluted tubule and other segments of the nephron.
    • Final composition and concentration of urine are determined by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts.

    Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Homeostasis

    • Chemical bonds between molecules permit dissociation.
    • Type II (cytotoxic) reaction: activates complement via the classical pathway, leading to cytolysis.
    • Type III (immune complex) reaction: occurs when antigen is in excess, leading to inflammatory damage.
    • Type IV (delayed cell-mediated) reaction: involves T cells and macrophages, resulting in an inflammatory response.

    Immune System

    • Primary lymphatic organs: bone marrow and thymus.
    • Secondary lymphatic organs: spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, etc.
    • Thymus: develops and matures T cells, which attack foreign or abnormal cells.
    • Lymphocytes: account for 25% of circulating WBCs, including T cells, B cells, and NK cells.

    Lymphatic Organs

    • Spleen: largest collection of lymphoid tissue, responsible for defense, hematopoiesis, RBC/platelet destruction, and blood reservoir.
    • Lymph nodes: filter lymph, removing microbes and other injurious particles.
    • Tonsils: masses of lymphoid tissue, protecting the pharynx from exterior threats.

    Immune Response

    • Purpose: to inactivate/destroy pathogens and/or abnormal cells.
    • Involves coordinated activities of T cells and B cells.
    • Cell-mediated immunity: defends against abnormal cells, infected cells.
    • Antibody-mediated immunity: defends against antigens on body fluids.

    Hypersensitivity

    • Anaphylactic (Type I) reaction: an immediate response, involving IgE antibodies.
    • Cytotoxic (Type II) reaction: triggered by the binding of antibodies to antigens on cell surfaces.
    • Immune complex (Type III) reaction: occurs when antigen is in excess, leading to inflammatory damage.
    • Cell-mediated (Type IV) reaction: involves T cells and macrophages, resulting in an inflammatory response.

    Preventing Anaphylactic Reactions

    • Skin tests: diagnose allergies by inoculating small amounts of antigen beneath the epidermis.
    • Desensitization: series of injections gradually increasing doses of antigen, aiming to produce IgG instead of IgE.

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Related Documents

    Anatomy FINAL1.docx

    Description

    Test your knowledge on the anatomy of the respiratory system, including the structures from the nasopharynx to the larynx and their specific characteristics. Learn about the different types of epithelium, cartilages, and functions of each part.

    More Like This

    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser