Research Questions, Problems and Hypotheses

Research Questions, Problems, and Hypotheses

• Research problems are enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling conditions.
• Problem statements articulate the research problem and the rationale for the study.
• Statements of purpose summarize the overall goal of the study.
• Research questions are queries that the researcher wants answered to address the research problem, often one central question.
• Hypotheses are predictions about relationships among variables – viewed as educated guesses.
• Side effects of chemotherapy, such as nausea and vomiting, are common problems.
• Effective interventions are needed to manage these side effects in patients receiving chemotherapy.

Types of Theories

• Classical theory systematically explains relationships among phenomena.
• Descriptive theory thoroughly describes a phenomenon based on rich observations.
• Grand theory attempts to explain large aspects of human experiences.
• Middle-range theory focuses on a specific aspect of human experience.

Models

• Conceptual models deal with abstractions, assembled in a coherent scheme; represent a more loosely structured attempt to explain phenomena than theories.
• Schematic models visually represent relationships among phenomena and used in both quantitative and qualitative research.

Types of Theoretical Frameworks and Models

• Grand theory examples include Watson's Theory of Human Caring, Peplau's Theory of Interpersonal Relations, and Leiniger's Transcultural Nursing Theory.
• Middle-range theory examples include Beck's Theory of Postpartum Depression, Mishel's Uncertainty in Illness Theory, and Pender's Health Promotion Model.

Commonalities of Theories and Conceptual Models

• Use concepts as building blocks.
• Require conceptual definitions of key concepts.
• Can be represented in schematic models.
• Are developed inductively.
• Cannot be proven – they are supported to varying degrees.
• Can generate hypotheses and serve as stimuli for research.

Conceptual Models of Nursing

• Formal explanations of nursing practice.
• Four central concepts: human beings, environment, health, and nursing.
• Roy's Adaptation Model: views humans as biopsychosocial adaptive systems who cope with environmental change through the process of adaptation.
• Conceptual models of nursing used in research include Roy's Adaptation Model.

Other Models Used by Nurse Researchers

• Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (self-efficacy): Explains human behavior using the concepts of self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and incentives.
• Prochaska's Transtheoretical Model (stages of change): Used in healthcare settings.
• Becker's Health Belief Model: Used in healthcare settings.
• Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior: Used in healthcare settings.

Examples of Key Constructs From Shared Theories

• Self-efficacy (how much control I have over my own life) – a concept from Social Cognitive Theory.
• Stages of change – a concept from the Transtheoretical Model.
• Behavioral intentions – a concept from the Theory of Planned Behavior.

Theories in Qualitative Research

• Substantive theory is used to understand target phenomena.
• Grounded theory focuses on establishing three core principles, involving human action, meaning, and interpretive processes.
• Ethnography explores the cultural aspects of a situation, using ideational and materialistic theories.
• Phenomenology examines the philosophical underpinnings of human experience.

Theoretical Underpinning of Grounded Theory

• Grounded theory focuses on three core principles: human action towards things, derived meanings from human interactions, and meanings modified through interpretive process.

Critiquing Research Problems, Questions, and Hypotheses

• Evaluating the clarity and communication of the research problem.
• Assessing the significance and compatibility of the problem with the nursing field and research paradigms.
• Evaluating the suitability of the statement of purpose and research questions to the research inquiry.

The Use of Theories or Models in Quantitative Research

• Testing a theory through deducing hypotheses to be tested.
• Testing a theory-based intervention.
• Using a theory or model for organization or interpretation.
• Fitting a problem into theory after the fact (Not recommended)

Additional Guidelines for Critiquing Frameworks

• Evaluating whether a report describes a conceptual framework.
• Assessing how well major features of the theory/model are described for understanding.
• Evaluating whether the theory/model is appropriate for the research problem.
• Determining whether the theory/model is used to generate hypotheses.
• Checking if the concepts & intervention components are consistent with the theory.
• Evaluating if the framework guides the study methods.
• Assessing if findings are interpreted within the framework.

Quantitative Studies

• Concepts typically well-developed with established methods; researchers use these or develop new measurement tools to support the understanding of the need.

Qualitative Studies

• Study undertaken when a rich understanding of a poorly understood phenomenon is required.

Research Problems and Questions

• Problems must be broad enough to include central concerns, but narrow enough to guide study design.

Components of a Problem Statement

• Identify the problem (why?).
• Provide background on the problem's nature.
• Give the scope of the problem and affected populations.
• Outline consequences of not addressing the problem.
• Identify knowledge gaps.
• Propose a solution for how the study will contribute.
• Example: Nausea and vomiting are common side effects of chemotherapy.

Statement of Purpose: Quantitative Studies

• Identify key variables (independent and dependent variables).
• Note possible relationships between variables (cause and effect, or correlation).
• Indicate the target population.
• State the nature of the research inquiry (e.g., testing, comparing, evaluating).

Statement of Purpose: Qualitative Studies

• Identify central phenomena.
• Suggest relevant research traditions (e.g., grounded theory, ethnography).
• Indicate the relevant group, community, or setting of interest.
• Suggest the nature of the inquiry (e.g., to describe, to discover, to explore).

Hypotheses

• Statements of expected answer to a research question.
• Typically involve two or more variables (relationship between independent and dependent variables).
• Must contain terms indicating a relationship (e.g., more than, different from, associated with).

Hypotheses and Proof

• Hypotheses are never proved or disproved, but supported or rejected by the data,
• They represent probabilistic inferences.

Directional vs Non-directional hypotheses

• Directional hypothesis: Specifies the expected direction of the relationship between variables.
• Non-directional hypothesis: Predicts the existence of a relationship without specifying its direction.

Research vs Null hypotheses

• Research hypothesis: States the actual prediction of relationships.
• Null hypothesis: Expresses the absence of a relationship (used for statistical testing).

Sources of Research Problems:

• Clinical experience, nursing literature, social issues.
• Suggestions from external sources like national organizations or funders, change in political tide.
• Example: Clinical experience with the side effects of chemotherapy in patients.

Test your understanding of research questions, problems, hypotheses, and the various types of theories. This quiz covers the nuances of formulating research problems and the classifications of theories, including classical, descriptive, grand, and middle-range theories. Challenge yourself to identify the differences and applications of these concepts.