Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the role of the independent variable (IV) in an experiment?
What is the role of the independent variable (IV) in an experiment?
Which of the following best describes a double-blind procedure?
Which of the following best describes a double-blind procedure?
What is a key characteristic of a population in research?
What is a key characteristic of a population in research?
What does the correlation coefficient indicate?
What does the correlation coefficient indicate?
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Which statement accurately describes conflict in sampling methods?
Which statement accurately describes conflict in sampling methods?
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What are the implications of the placebo effect in experimental research?
What are the implications of the placebo effect in experimental research?
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What is the significance of informed consent in psychological research?
What is the significance of informed consent in psychological research?
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Which cognitive bias refers to the inclination to favor information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs?
Which cognitive bias refers to the inclination to favor information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs?
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What term describes the developmental changes that occur in children during the sensorimotor stage according to Piaget’s theory?
What term describes the developmental changes that occur in children during the sensorimotor stage according to Piaget’s theory?
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Which parenting style is characterized by high responsiveness and high demands?
Which parenting style is characterized by high responsiveness and high demands?
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What is the primary focus of Vygotsky’s social-cultural view on cognitive development?
What is the primary focus of Vygotsky’s social-cultural view on cognitive development?
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At what stage of life does menarche typically occur?
At what stage of life does menarche typically occur?
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Which factor is NOT a component of Erikson’s psychosocial stages?
Which factor is NOT a component of Erikson’s psychosocial stages?
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Which type of reinforcement schedule produces a scalloped pattern of responses?
Which type of reinforcement schedule produces a scalloped pattern of responses?
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What concept describes the ability of a child to understand they are one part of a larger group in social interactions?
What concept describes the ability of a child to understand they are one part of a larger group in social interactions?
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Which of the following describes an effect of teratogens during prenatal development?
Which of the following describes an effect of teratogens during prenatal development?
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In classical conditioning, what is the term for the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occurred?
In classical conditioning, what is the term for the response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occurred?
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What does the concept of 'crystallized intelligence' refer to?
What does the concept of 'crystallized intelligence' refer to?
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What is the primary role of the amygdala in the brain?
What is the primary role of the amygdala in the brain?
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Which of the following statements about neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors is true?
Which of the following statements about neurotransmitter reuptake inhibitors is true?
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Which sleep disorder is characterized by sudden and uncontrollable sleep attacks?
Which sleep disorder is characterized by sudden and uncontrollable sleep attacks?
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What is a feature of the 'broadbent's filter model' in attention?
What is a feature of the 'broadbent's filter model' in attention?
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Which of the following systems is responsible for the perception of pain according to the gate control theory?
Which of the following systems is responsible for the perception of pain according to the gate control theory?
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Which stage of sleep is primarily associated with dreaming?
Which stage of sleep is primarily associated with dreaming?
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What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
What is the primary function of the occipital lobe?
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Which theory suggests that dreams are a byproduct of brain activity during REM sleep?
Which theory suggests that dreams are a byproduct of brain activity during REM sleep?
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According to Weber's Law, how is the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli defined?
According to Weber's Law, how is the just-noticeable difference between two stimuli defined?
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Which of the following is NOT a common withdrawal symptom of opioid dependence?
Which of the following is NOT a common withdrawal symptom of opioid dependence?
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What does the term 'plasticity' refer to in the context of the brain?
What does the term 'plasticity' refer to in the context of the brain?
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Which of the following describes a function of the hippocampus?
Which of the following describes a function of the hippocampus?
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Which of the following best defines the concept of 'executive functions' in psychology?
Which of the following best defines the concept of 'executive functions' in psychology?
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Study Notes
Research Methods in Psychology
- Experimental vs. Non-experimental: Experimental designs manipulate variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships, while non-experimental designs observe relationships but cannot establish causality.
- Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher.
- Dependent Variable (DV): The variable measured to assess the effect of the IV.
- Confounding Variables: Uncontrolled variables that could influence the results, potentially obscuring the effects of the IV.
- Random Assignment: Assigning participants randomly to different groups to minimize biases.
- Population: The entire group of interest for research.
- Sample: A subset of the population, chosen to represent the population.
- Random Sampling: Selecting a sample randomly from the population.
- Representative Samples: Samples that accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
- Convenience Samples: Samples recruited based on convenience for the researcher. Sampling bias results from this type of sample.
- Generalizability: The extent to which findings can be applied to the broader population.
- Experimental Group: The group receiving the treatment or manipulation.
- Control Group: The group not receiving the treatment or manipulation, used for comparison.
- Placebo Group: A control group receiving a placebo (an inactive treatment) to account for the placebo effect.
- Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where participants experience effects simply because they expect them to.
- Single-Blind Procedure: Participants do not know which group they are in, reducing potential bias.
- Double-Blind Procedure: Neither participants nor researchers know which group participants are in, minimizing potential bias from both sources.
- Experimenter Bias: The researcher's expectations or beliefs influence the results.
- Case Study: An in-depth study of a single individual or small group.
- Correlation (Does Not Equal Causation): Correlation studies identify relationships between variables, not causality.
- Positive Correlation: As one variable increases, the other increases.
- Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
- Directionality Problem: Unable to determine which variable causes the other.
- Third-Variable Problem: A third, unmeasured variable may influence both variables of interest.
- Scatterplots: Graphs displaying the relationship between two variables.
- Correlation Coefficient: A numerical measure of the strength and direction of a correlation.
- Quantitative Measures: Numerical data, like Likert scales.
- Qualitative Measures: Non-numerical data, like structured interviews.
- Surveys: Methods to gather self-reported data using questionnaires.
- Framing: How information is presented can influence responses.
- Social Desirability Bias: Participants answer in ways they believe are socially acceptable.
- Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracy in self-reported data.
- Meta-Analysis: A statistical analysis of multiple studies to synthesize results.
- Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural settings.
Biological Bases of Behavior
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Interaction of Heredity and Environment: The interplay of genetics and experience in shaping behavior.
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Genetic Predisposition: Inherited tendency towards certain traits or behaviors.
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Evolutionary Perspective: Explaining behaviors in terms of their evolutionary origins and adaptive value.
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Twin Studies: Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to study the influence of genetics and environment.
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Overview of the Nervous System: Central nervous system (CNS) is the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Central Nervous System (CNS): The brain and spinal cord.
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
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Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements.
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Autonomic Nervous System: Controls involuntary functions.
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Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic Nervous System: Part of the ANS, involved in fight-or-flight responses and maintaining homeostasis, respectively.
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The Neuron and Neural Firing: Information transmitted through neurons.
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Glial Cell: Support cells in the nervous system.
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Neurons: Cells transmitting signals.
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Reflex Arc: Simple neural pathway that mediates reflexes.
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Sensory Neurons: Carry information from senses to the CNS.
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Motor Neurons: Carry information from the CNS to muscles and glands.
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Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the CNS.
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Neural Transmission: The process of sending signals between neurons.
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All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron fires completely or not at all.
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Action Potential: Neural impulse.
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Depolarization: Change in charge across the neuron membrane.
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Refractory Period: Time after firing when a neuron cannot fire again.
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Resting Potential: The neuron's stable electrical charge when not firing.
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Reuptake: The absorption of neurotransmitters by the neuron that released them.
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Firing Threshold: The level of stimulation needed for a neuron to fire.
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Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses.
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Hormones: Chemicals released into the bloodstream that affect various bodily functions..
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Agonist vs. Antagonist: Substances that either enhance or block the effects of neurotransmitters.
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Reuptake Inhibitors: Drugs that block reuptake.
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Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that affect brain function.
The Brain and Cognitive functions
- Brainstem: Lower part of the brain, controls basic life functions.
- Medulla: Controls breathing and heartbeat.
- Reticular Activating System: Important for arousal and attention.
- Reward Center: Brain areas associated with pleasure and motivation.
- Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
- Cerebral Cortex: Outer layer of the brain, responsible for complex functions.
- Hemispheres: The two halves of the brain.
- Limbic System: Controls emotions and memory.
- Thalamus: Sensory relay station.
- Hypothalamus: Regulates body temperature, hunger, and thirst.
- Pituitary Gland: Endocrine gland; releases hormones.
- Amygdala: Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.
- Hippocampus: Involved in forming new memories.
- Corpus Callosum: Connects the two brain hemispheres.
- Lobes of the Cortex: Sections of the cerebral cortex.
- Occipital Lobes: Visual processing.
- Frontal Lobes (Prefrontal Cortex, Motor Cortex): Higher-level cognitive functions, voluntary movement.
- Temporal Lobes: Auditory processing, language.
- Parietal Lobes (Somatosensory Cortex, Association Areas): Sensory information, spatial reasoning.
- Split Brain Research: Studies on patients with severed corpus callosum.
- Specialization of Right/Left Hemispheres: Different functions are typically associated with each hemisphere.
- Broca's Area: Language production.
- Wernicke's Area: Language comprehension.
- Aphasia: Language disorder.
- Plasticity: The brain's ability to change and adapt.
- EEG: Electroencephalogram, measures brainwaves.
- fMRI: Functional MRI, measures brain activity.
- Case Studies (Lesioning Procedure): Studies involving brain damage.
- Contralateral Organization: Input from one side of the body is processed in the opposite hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa.
Sleep
- Varying Levels of Consciousness: Different states of awareness (e.g., wakefulness, sleep).
- Circadian Rhythm: Biological process that regulates sleep-wake cycles.
- Stages of Sleep: Different stages of sleep with distinct EEG patterns.
- NREM 1, 2, 3: Stages of non-rapid eye movement sleep.
- Hypnagogic Sensations: Strange sensory experiences during the transition to sleep.
- REM (Paradoxical Sleep): Rapid eye movement sleep associated with dreaming.
- Dreaming and REM: Dreaming occurs predominantly during REM sleep.
- REM Increases Throughout the Night: Increased REM duration as the night progresses.
- REM Rebound: Increased proportion of REM sleep after REM deprivation.
- Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams arise from random brain activity during sleep.
- Consolidation Theory: Dreams serve for memory processing.
- Sleep Disorders: Conditions affecting sleep patterns.
Sensation and Perception
- Defining Sensation: The process of receiving physical energy from the environment.
- Transduction: The process of converting physical energy into neural signals.
- Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed for detection 50% of the time.
- Just-Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimum difference between two stimuli that is detectable 50% of the time.
- Weber's Law: Describes the relationship between stimulus change and JND.
- Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.
- Sensory Interaction: The influence of one sense on another.
- Synesthesia: A blend of sensations, like seeing colors when hearing sounds.
- Retina: Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye.
- Blind Spot: Area on the retina lacking photoreceptors.
- Lens: Focuses light onto the retina.
- Accommodation: The lens changing shape to focus on objects at different distances.
- Nearsightedness and Farsightedness: Vision problems caused by improper focusing.
- Rods and Cones: Photoreceptors in the retina, specialized for different light conditions and color vision.
- Trichromatic Theory: Color vision based on three types of cones.
- Opponent-Process Theory: Color vision based on opponent processes (red/green, blue/yellow, black/white).
- Fovea: Central region of the retina with the highest concentration of cones.
- Afterimages: Visual sensations that persist after the stimulus is removed.
- Ganglion Cells: Cells sending signals from the retina to the brain.
- Color Vision Deficiencies: Reduced ability to perceive color (e.g., dichromatism, monochromatism).
- Occipital Lobes (Visual Processing): Region of the brain processing visual information.
- Prosopagnosia: Inability to recognize faces.
- Blindsight: Visual experience in the presence of blindness.
- Wavelength of Sound = Pitch: Sound's frequency determines its pitch.
- Amplitude of Wave = Loudness: Sound's intensity determines loudness.
- Place Theory: Pitch perception based on vibration location along the basilar membrane.
- Frequency Theory: Pitch perception based on neural firing rate.
- Sound Localization: Ability to locate the source of a sound.
- Conduction Deafness: Hearing loss due to damage to the structures that transmit sound.
- Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss due to damage to the auditory nerve or other parts of the auditory system.
- Chemical Senses (Olfaction + Gustation): Smell and taste.
- Thalamus (Smell): Smell is not processed here.
- Pheromones: Chemicals that trigger responses in others.
- Gustatory Cells (Taste Receptors): Specialized receptors for taste.
- Taste Receptors: Receptors for the basic tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami).
- Supertasters, Nontasters, Medium-Tasters: Individual differences in sensitivity to tastes.
- Touch: Receptors respond to pressure, temperature, and pain.
- Pain (Gate Control Theory): Pain perception is modulated by the brain's gate mechanism.
- Phantom Limb Syndrome: Experience of sensations in a missing limb.
- Vestibular Sense: Sense of balance and spatial orientation.
- Kinesthesis: Sense of body position and movement.
Perception
- Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: Perception from sensory input or prior knowledge.
- Schemas: Organized mental frameworks for interpreting information.
- Perceptual Set: Mental predisposition affecting perception.
- Context: Information surrounding a stimulus influencing perception.
- Gestalt Principles: Principles of perceptual organization (closure, figure-ground, proximity, similarity).
- Attention: Focusing awareness on specific stimuli.
- Selective Attention: Focusing on specific stimuli while filtering out others.
- Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one voice/stimulus amidst many.
- Change Blindness: Inability to detect changes in a visual scene when attention is focused elsewhere.
- Inattentional Blindness: Failure to perceive unexpected or non-attention-capturing stimuli.
Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgment, and Decision Making
- Concepts: Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas.
- Prototypes: Best examples of a concept.
- Metacognition: Knowing about knowing.
- Schemas (Assimilation and Accommodation): Modifying schemas for new information.
- Algorithms: Step-by-step procedures guaranteed to solve a problem.
- Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for problem-solving.
- Representativeness Heuristic: Judging probability based on resemblance to mental examples.
- Availability Heuristic: Judging probability based on ease of recalling examples.
- Mental Set: A tendency to solve problems in a way that has been successful in the past.
- Functional Fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.
- Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influencing the response to a subsequent stimulus.
- Framing: The wording used to present an issue can influence choices.
- Gambler's Fallacy: Believing that past events influence future probabilities.
- Sunk-Cost Fallacy: Continuing to invest resources in something that is failing because of past investment.
- Executive Functions: Higher-level cognitive processes like planning and problem-solving.
- Creativity: Generating novel and useful ideas.
- Convergent and Divergent Thinking: Finding one correct solution (convergent) or many solutions (divergent).
Memory
- Information Processing Model: Encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
- Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: Processes involved in memory.
- Automatic vs. Effortful Processing: Effortless encoding of routine information versus intentionally encoding information.
- Explicit Memory vs. Implicit Memory: Conscious versus unconscious memories.
- Episodic Memory: Personal experiences.
- Semantic Memory: General knowledge.
- Levels of Processing (Shallow, Intermediate, Deep): Encoding information for longer retention.
- Multi-Store Model: Three-stage model of memory (sensory, short-term, long-term).
- Sensory Memory (Iconic and Echoic): Initial brief sensory retention.
- Short-Term Memory (STM): Temporarily holds information.
- Long-Term Memory (LTM): Permanent storage of information.
- Working Memory: Memory used for reasoning and problem-solving.
- Prospective Memory: Remembering to do something in the future.
Encoding Memories
- Mnemonic Devices: Techniques for improving memory.
- Method of Loci: Using familiar locations to store information.
- Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units.
- Spacing Effect: Distributed practice is more effective than massed practice.
- Serial Position Effect (Primacy and Recency Effects): Superior recall for items at the beginning and end of a list.
Storing Memories
- 4 Types of Storage: Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory.
- Maintenance Rehearsal vs. Elaborative Rehearsal: Simple repetition versus connecting information to existing knowledge.
- Autobiographical Memory: Memories of personal experiences.
- Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to recall past events.
- Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories.
- Alzheimer's disease: Progressive brain disease affecting memory and other cognitive functions.
- Infantile Amnesia: Inability to remember early childhood experiences.
Retrieving Memories
- Retrieval Cues: Stimuli that help retrieve memories.
- Context-Dependent Memory: Memories are better retrieved in the context where they originated.
- State-Dependent Memory: Memories retrieved best when in the same emotional or physiological state as when they were formed.
- Mood-Congruent Memory: Tendency to recall memories that match current mood.
- Retrieval Practice: Actively retrieving information improves memory.
- Testing Effect: Taking tests strengthens memory.
- Metacognition: Knowledge of one's own cognitive processes.
- Recall and Recognition: Different types of memory retrieval.
Forgetting and Other Memory Challenges
- Forgetting Curve: Memory decline over time.
- Encoding Failure: Information not encoded into long-term memory.
- Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with new.
- Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with old.
- Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: Feeling of knowing something while unable to retrieve it.
- Repression: Unconscious pushing of painful memories out of awareness.
- Misinformation Effect: Incorporating inaccurate information into memories.
- Source Amnesia: Losing track of the origin of a memory.
- Constructive Memory: Memory is actively constructed combining information and filling gaps.
- Imagination Inflation: Increased confidence that a past event happened due to repeatedly imagining it.
Intelligence and Achievement
- g theory or multiple abilities: Intelligence as a general factor or many specific abilities.
- Fluid and crystallized intelligence (Unit 3): Fluid intelligence is ability to reason quickly; crystallized intelligence is accumulated knowledge.
- IQ as mental age/chronological age: Determining intelligence by comparing mental age to actual age.
- Modern uses of IQ tests for identifying students in need of educational services: Identifying students who may benefit from interventions.
- Standardization: Administering tests to a large group to establish norms.
- Norming: Establishing norms to compare a score to others.
- Percentile rank: The percentage of individuals who scored lower than a given score.
- Reliability and validity: Consistency and accuracy of a measure.
- Construct validity: Tests whether the measure measures the intended concept.
- Predictive validity: How well the test predicts future performance.
- Test-retest reliability: Consistency of scores over time.
- Split-half reliability: Consistency of scores across different halves of a test.
- Factor analysis (Unit 4): Statistical method to identify underlying factors.
- Stereotype threat: Negative impact of stereotypes on performance.
- Stereotype lift: Positive impact of stereotypes on performance (can be positive based on ethnic group/group identity).
- Flynn effect: Steady increase in average IQ scores over time.
- Within/between group variation: Differences in intelligence scores within and between groups.
- Discriminatory uses of intelligence testing: Potential use for biased decisions and interpretations.
- Achievement tests vs. aptitude tests: Achievement measures knowledge; Aptitude measures potential.
- Growth vs. fixed mindset: Believing intelligence can improve (growth) vs. being fixed and unchangeable (fixed).
Developmental Psychology
- Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology: Stability and change across lifespan; nature and nurture; continuous and discontinuous development; both longitudinal and cross-sectional research methods.
- Physical Development Across the Lifespan: Prenatal development, infancy reflexes, motor skills, puberty, and aging.
- Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan: Piaget's stages of cognitive development; Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
- Communication and Language: Development of language including stages (cooing, babbling, one-word speech).
- Social-Emotional Development Across the Lifespan: Attachment styles (secure, insecure, avoidant, anxious, disorganized); parenting styles (authoritarian, authoritative, permissive); Erikson's psychosocial stages; various types of identity status, including achieving, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium.
- Ecological Systems Theory: Broader context of interactions that influence development (individual, immediate social groups, cultural and societal factors).
- Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs): Early experiences that can negatively affect health and wellbeing in adulthood.
- Learning and Conditioning
Learning
- Behavioral Perspective: Learning through observable behavior changes.
- Classical Conditioning: Learning through association.
- Acquisition, UCS, UCR, CS, CR: Learning process, stimulus, response.
- Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Stimulus Generalization, Stimulus Discrimination: Responses to learned stimuli and changes within the conditioning process.
- Higher-Order Conditioning: Learning based on previous associations.
- Classical Conditioning of Emotions: Learning associations, such as fear, due to conditioning.
- Classical Conditioning in Therapy: Using classical principles to treat psychological disorders.
- Taste Aversions: Rapid learning through one or a few pairings, often from biological preparedness.
- Habituation: Reduced response to repeated stimuli.
- Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences of actions.
- Law of Effect: Actions with favorable outcomes are more likely to be repeated.
- Reinforcement vs. Punishment: Increasing or decreasing behavior through consequences.
- Positive/Negative Reinforcement/Punishment: Adding/removing stimuli to encourage or discourage behavior.
- Primary/Secondary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing versus learned reinforcing.
- Reinforcement schedules (Continuous vs. partial; Fixed/Variable Ratio and Interval): Patterns of reinforcement.
- Social Learning Theory: Learning through observation and modeling.
- Observational Learning, Vicarious Conditioning, Modeling: Learning by observing others.
- Insight Learning: Sudden understanding of a problem's solution.
- Latent Learning: Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement.
- Cognitive Maps: Mental representations of environments.
Ethical Guidelines and Methodology
- Ethical Guidelines: Protection of participants, informed consent, confidentiality.
- Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews research for ethical considerations.
- Informed Consent: Participants must understand and agree to participate.
- Informed Assent: Children's agreement.
- Protection from Harm: Minimizing risk to participants.
- Confidentiality of Participants: Keeping participant information private.
- Minimal Deception: Using deception only when necessary.
- Confederates: Actors in research studies.
- Debriefing: Explaining the true nature of a study after it is completed.
- Central Tendency: Mean, median, and mode; representing central data values.
- Measures of Variation (Range & Standard Deviation): Range describes data spread; standard deviation quantitatively measures variability.
- Normal Curve (Percentiles & Percentages): Data distribution characteristics and percentages.
- Positive/Negative Skews: Data distribution characteristics.
- Bimodal Distributions: Multiple peaks in a distribution.
- Regression toward the Mean: Scores tending toward the average in repeated measurements.
- Statistical Significance: Probability of results occurring by chance.
- Effect Sizes: The magnitude of an effect.
- Cognitive Biases (Confirmation Bias, Hindsight Bias, Overconfidence): Systematic errors in thinking.
Studying That Suits You
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Description
Explore the key concepts of research methods in psychology, including experimental and non-experimental designs, variables, sampling techniques, and the importance of random assignment. This quiz will test your understanding of how to conduct and interpret psychological research effectively.
