Podcast
Questions and Answers
What are the primary goals of research methods in psychology?
What are the primary goals of research methods in psychology?
To observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes.
What distinguishes a null hypothesis from an alternative hypothesis?
What distinguishes a null hypothesis from an alternative hypothesis?
A null hypothesis predicts no difference between groups, while an alternative hypothesis predicts a significant difference.
How does a one-tailed hypothesis differ from a two-tailed hypothesis?
How does a one-tailed hypothesis differ from a two-tailed hypothesis?
A one-tailed hypothesis specifies the direction of the expected effect, whereas a two-tailed hypothesis does not.
Why are sampling techniques important in psychological research?
Why are sampling techniques important in psychological research?
What must psychologists do after conducting research and obtaining results?
What must psychologists do after conducting research and obtaining results?
What is the primary purpose of a hypothesis in psychological research?
What is the primary purpose of a hypothesis in psychological research?
In what way does a representative sample benefit psychological research?
In what way does a representative sample benefit psychological research?
What type of hypothesis is typically stated as ‘There will be a difference ...’?
What type of hypothesis is typically stated as ‘There will be a difference ...’?
What are demand characteristics and how might they affect research study results?
What are demand characteristics and how might they affect research study results?
Explain the importance of controlling extraneous variables in an experiment.
Explain the importance of controlling extraneous variables in an experiment.
What is the primary advantage of using random allocation in independent designs?
What is the primary advantage of using random allocation in independent designs?
Describe counterbalancing and its role in experimental design.
Describe counterbalancing and its role in experimental design.
What are the potential drawbacks of the repeated measures design in experiments?
What are the potential drawbacks of the repeated measures design in experiments?
How does a matched pairs design differ from an independent design?
How does a matched pairs design differ from an independent design?
Why is it crucial to ensure groups do not differ in important ways when comparing two groups in an experiment?
Why is it crucial to ensure groups do not differ in important ways when comparing two groups in an experiment?
What roles do the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) play in experimental methods?
What roles do the independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DV) play in experimental methods?
What is the primary purpose of conducting a pilot study in research?
What is the primary purpose of conducting a pilot study in research?
Define floor effect in the context of pilot studies.
Define floor effect in the context of pilot studies.
How does longitudinal research differ from cross-sectional research?
How does longitudinal research differ from cross-sectional research?
What characterizes a cohort study?
What characterizes a cohort study?
Explain the concept of triangulation in research.
Explain the concept of triangulation in research.
What does reliability in research signify?
What does reliability in research signify?
Describe meta-analysis and its significance in research.
Describe meta-analysis and its significance in research.
What is inter-observer reliability?
What is inter-observer reliability?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary data?
What is the main difference between primary and secondary data?
Define validity in the context of research.
Define validity in the context of research.
What is concurrent validity and how is it assessed?
What is concurrent validity and how is it assessed?
Explain what is meant by ecological validity.
Explain what is meant by ecological validity.
What are the implications of a significant result in statistical testing?
What are the implications of a significant result in statistical testing?
What does the term 'falsifiability' imply about scientific theories?
What does the term 'falsifiability' imply about scientific theories?
Describe what a paradigm shift means in scientific discourse.
Describe what a paradigm shift means in scientific discourse.
What does replicability entail in scientific research?
What does replicability entail in scientific research?
Why is p < 0.01 typically used for tests involving new drugs?
Why is p < 0.01 typically used for tests involving new drugs?
Define a type I error in the context of hypothesis testing.
Define a type I error in the context of hypothesis testing.
What is informed consent, and why is it important in psychological research?
What is informed consent, and why is it important in psychological research?
What ethical issue arises from participants guessing the aims of a study?
What ethical issue arises from participants guessing the aims of a study?
Under what circumstances is deception acceptable in psychological research?
Under what circumstances is deception acceptable in psychological research?
What is the right to withdraw, and why is it significant in research studies?
What is the right to withdraw, and why is it significant in research studies?
Explain why researchers must avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life.
Explain why researchers must avoid risks greater than those experienced in everyday life.
How should researchers handle confidentiality with participant data?
How should researchers handle confidentiality with participant data?
What is a primary strength of using a systematic review in research?
What is a primary strength of using a systematic review in research?
What is one of the main weaknesses associated with systematic reviews?
What is one of the main weaknesses associated with systematic reviews?
In the peer review process, what factors are evaluated by the reviewers?
In the peer review process, what factors are evaluated by the reviewers?
What are some potential outcomes of a peer review on a submitted article?
What are some potential outcomes of a peer review on a submitted article?
How can peer review hinder the publication of innovative research?
How can peer review hinder the publication of innovative research?
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative data?
What issue arises from the increased accessibility of research on the internet?
What issue arises from the increased accessibility of research on the internet?
Why is peer review considered important in the field of research?
Why is peer review considered important in the field of research?
Flashcards
Research Methods in Psychology
Research Methods in Psychology
Systematic procedures to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
A statement predicting research outcomes, able to be proven or disproven.
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Null Hypothesis (H0)
Predicts no difference in results between conditions.
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1)
Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1)
Predicts a significant difference in results between conditions (the experimental hypothesis).
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One-tailed Hypothesis
One-tailed Hypothesis
States the specific direction of expected results (higher, lower, etc.).
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Two-tailed Hypothesis
Two-tailed Hypothesis
Predicts a difference, but not the direction.
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Sampling
Sampling
Selecting a group of participants from a larger population.
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Representative Sample
Representative Sample
A sample mirroring the characteristics of the entire target population.
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Pilot Study
Pilot Study
A preliminary trial run of a research study, using a few participants to assess procedures and identify flaws.
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Floor Effect
Floor Effect
When a research task is too difficult for participants, leading to consistently low scores or performance.
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Ceiling Effect
Ceiling Effect
When a research task is too easy for participants, leading to consistently high scores or performance.
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Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-Sectional Research
A research design that compares different groups of people at the same point in time.
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Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal Research
A research design that tracks the same group of people over time to observe changes.
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Cohort Study
Cohort Study
A type of longitudinal study focusing on a group of people who share a common characteristic.
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Triangulation
Triangulation
Using multiple research methods to enhance the validity of a study.
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Reliability
Reliability
The consistency of a measurement, ensuring repeated attempts produce similar results.
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Demand Characteristics
Demand Characteristics
Participants figure out the study's goal and act accordingly, potentially skewing results.
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Extraneous Variables
Extraneous Variables
Factors outside the independent variable that can affect the dependent variable, making it harder to isolate the cause-and-effect relationship.
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How to Control Extraneous Variables
How to Control Extraneous Variables
Randomly allocating participants or using matched pairs design helps reduce individual differences, while standardized procedures ensure consistent treatment across groups.
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Independent Design
Independent Design
Each participant belongs to only one group (control or experimental).
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Matched Participants Design
Matched Participants Design
Participants in both groups are carefully matched on relevant factors (e.g., age, ability) to minimize differences.
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Repeated Measures Design
Repeated Measures Design
Each participant takes part in both conditions (meaning everyone is in all groups).
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Order Effects
Order Effects
Performance in a later condition may be influenced by earlier experiences in the experiment.
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Counterbalancing
Counterbalancing
Ensuring each condition is equally likely to be experienced first or second, minimizing order effects.
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Qualitative Data
Qualitative Data
Data that focuses on understanding experiences and perspectives, often gathered through open questions in questionnaires or observational studies.
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Primary Data
Primary Data
Data collected directly by the researcher for the specific research purpose.
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Secondary Data
Secondary Data
Data collected by someone other than the researcher, often published in journals, books, or articles.
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Validity
Validity
The extent to which a research study accurately measures what it intends to measure, reflecting real-world phenomena.
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Concurrent Validity
Concurrent Validity
A measure's ability to correlate closely with existing, similar measures, indicating its reliability.
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Face Validity
Face Validity
Whether a measure appears to measure what it's supposed to, evaluated by experts or simply by looking at it.
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Ecological Validity
Ecological Validity
The extent to which research findings can be applied to real-world settings and situations.
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Temporal Validity
Temporal Validity
The extent to which research findings can be applied across different time periods.
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Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis
Combining results from multiple studies to reach stronger conclusions. This involves systematically reviewing and analyzing data from different studies to identify trends and synthesize findings.
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Peer Review
Peer Review
A process where experts in a field evaluate research articles before publication to ensure quality and rigor. This involves sending the research to other scientists in the same field for review and feedback.
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What is the key benefit of meta-analysis?
What is the key benefit of meta-analysis?
Meta-analysis increases the validity of conclusions by drawing on a wider range of research evidence.
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What's a potential weakness of meta-analysis?
What's a potential weakness of meta-analysis?
Research designs across studies often vary, making direct comparisons challenging.
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What's the main goal of peer review?
What's the main goal of peer review?
To ensure quality and prevent faulty research from entering the public domain by having experts evaluate the research.
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Why is peer review important for university departments?
Why is peer review important for university departments?
Peer review helps assess the research quality of departments and contributes to their overall ranking.
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Type I Error
Type I Error
Rejecting the null hypothesis when it's actually true. Occurs when using a lenient significance level (like p < 0.05) and can lead to false positive conclusions.
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Type II Error
Type II Error
Accepting the null hypothesis when it's actually false. Occurs when using a stringent significance level (like p < 0.01) and prevents you from finding a real effect.
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Informed Consent
Informed Consent
Participants understand the research's nature, risks, and benefits before agreeing to participate. Ensures they have the freedom to choose.
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Deception in Research
Deception in Research
Misleading or withholding information from participants, only justified under strict ethical guidelines.
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Right to Withdraw
Right to Withdraw
Participants can choose to leave the study at any time, even if they've already begun, without any consequences.
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Protection from Harm
Protection from Harm
Researchers are obligated to minimize any potential risks to participants, keeping them as safe as possible.
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Confidentiality
Confidentiality
Protecting participants' personal information, ensuring it's not shared with anyone else or used in a way that could identify them.
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Presumptive Consent
Presumptive Consent
Gaining approval from a similar group of potential participants before the actual study. Used when full informed consent is not feasible.
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Research Methods in Psychology
- Research methods are systematic procedures used to observe, describe, predict, and explain behavior and mental processes.
- Methods include experiments, surveys, case studies, and naturalistic observations.
- Data collection is designed to be objective and reliable.
Hypotheses
- Hypotheses are statements predicting the results of an investigation.
- They can be verified or disproved.
- Four types of hypotheses exist:
- Null (H0): Predicts no difference between conditions (e.g., "There will be no difference...")
- Alternative (Ha or H1): Predicts a significant difference between conditions (e.g., "There will be a significant difference...")
- One-tailed (directional): States the specific direction of the difference (e.g., higher, lower). Can be positive or negative correlation
- Two-tailed (non-directional): Predicts a difference without specifying its direction (e.g., "There will be a difference...")
Sampling Techniques
- Sampling is selecting a representative group from a larger population.
- Representative samples accurately reflect the characteristics of the target population.
- Generalizability refers to the extent findings from a sample can apply to the wider population.
- Volunteer samples: Participants self-select.
- Opportunity (convenience) samples: Participants are readily available.
- Random samples: Each member has an equal chance of selection.
- Systematic samples: Selecting every nth person.
- Stratified samples: Subgroups are represented proportionally.
- Snowball samples: Participants recruit further participants.
- Quota samples: Participants are selected to meet specific quotas (e.g., a certain percentage of unemployed people).
Variables
- Experiments involve independent and dependent variables.
- Independent variable: Manipulated by the experimenter.
- Dependent variable: Measured by the experimenter.
- Extraneous variables: Factors that can affect the results, besides the independent variables.
- Operationalizing variables: Defining variables in measurable terms.
Experimental Designs
- Experimental design outlines how participants are assigned to conditions.
- Independent groups design: Each participant is assigned to only one group. Randomization is often used.
- Matched pairs design: Participants are matched on relevant characteristics before being assigned to groups.
- Repeated measures design: Each participant participates in all conditions.
- Controlling extraneous variables is crucial in experimental designs. Standardized procedures help ensure every participant experiences a condition the same way.
- Demand characteristics: Participants' awareness of the study's aims may influence their behavior.
- Order effects: The order of conditions can influence participant performance. Counterbalancing can minimize this effect.
Case Studies
- Case studies: In-depth investigations of individuals, groups, events, or communities.
- Diverse sources of information are used.
- Longitudinal studies follow participants over an extended period.
Correlational Studies
-
Correlation: A measure of the relationship between two variables.
-
Positive correlation: Variables change in the same direction.
-
Negative correlation: Variables change in opposite directions.
-
Zero correlation: No relationship between variables.
-
Correlation coefficients (e.g., Pearson's r, Spearman's rho): Numerical scores indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.
- Strength of relationships are usually presented on a graph, as a visual or chart representation.
-
Correlation does NOT equal causation: A correlation between two variables does not necessarily mean one causes the other.
Interview Methods
- Interviews: Structured or unstructured conversations.
- Structured: Standardized questions in a set order.
- Unstructured: Open-ended questions, allowing participants to elaborate.
Questionnaire Methods
- Questionnaires: Written interviews used to collect data from multiple participants efficiently.
- Open questions: Encourage detailed responses.
- Closed questions: Limit responses to specific options.
Observations
- Observations: Observing and recording behaviors.
- Covert: Participants unaware of observation.
- Overt: Participants aware of observation.
- Controlled: Observations in controlled settings.
- Naturalistic: Observations in natural settings.
- Participant: Researcher participates in the observed activity.
- Non-participant: Researcher observes from a distance.
Pilot Studies
- Pilot Studies: Small-scale preliminary studies to evaluate the feasibility of a larger study.
- Identifying potential problems in the research design can save time and resources.
Research Design
- Cross-sectional research: Comparing different groups of people at a single point in time.
- Longitudinal research: Following the same group of people over a period of time.
- Cohort studies: Tracking a population sharing a characteristic over time.
- Triangulation: Using multiple research methods improves study validity.
Reliability
- Reliability: Consistency of a measure.
- Test-retest reliability: Consistency over time.
- Inter-rater reliability: Consistency among different observers.
Validity
- Validity: Accuracy of a measure.
- Concurrent validity: Agreement with existing measures.
- Face validity: Whether a measure appears to assess.
- Ecological validity: Generalizability to real-life settings.
- Temporal validity: Generalizability to other historical periods.
Meta-Analysis
- Meta-analysis: Combining findings from multiple studies.
- Provides a more comprehensive and objective evaluation of available data.
Peer Review
- Peer review: Evaluation of research by experts in the field.
- Ensures quality and validity of research before publication.
- May prevent flawed or fraudulent research from entering the public domain.
Types of Data
- Quantitative data: Numerical data (e.g., reaction time, score on a test).
- Qualitative data: Non-numerical data (e.g., descriptions, interviews).
Features of Science
- Empirical method: Relies on observation and experience.
- Replicability: Ability to reproduce results.
- Falsifiability: Open to being disproven.
- Paradigm: Set of shared assumptions and methods within a discipline.
Statistical Testing
- Statistical tests help determine whether observed differences or relationships are likely due to chance or true effects.
- Significance levels (e.g., p < .05) define a threshold for accepting a result isn't likely due to chance.
Ethical Issues
- Informed consent: Participants understand the study and agree to participate.
- Withdrawal rights: Participants may leave at any time.
- Protection from harm: Studies should avoid causing physical or psychological harm.
- Confidentiality: Maintaining participants' privacy.
- Deception: Withholding information—should only be used when ethically justified and fully revealed to participants after.
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