Research Methodology Chapter 2

Science, Scientific Method, and Critique

• Thomas Kuhn's concept of "paradigms" refers to universally recognized scientific achievements that shape the worldview of a scientific community.
• Paradigms can provide answers but may also be fundamentally wrong; real discovery starts with recognizing anomalies.
• Distinction between "normal" science (accepts existing theories) and "revolutionary" science (challenges existing paradigms) according to Kuhn.
• Karl Popper criticized traditional methods of grounding theories in induction, advocating for falsifiability as a way to test the robustness of scientific theories.
• Popper introduced the idea that scientific theories are "provisional conjectures" subject to disproof rather than definitive proof.
• David Deutsch highlighted the limitations of empiricism and the necessity for explanations that can transcend mere observation.
• Problems arise when existing theories conflict with expectations, necessitating new explanations beyond the current understanding.

Sociology as a Science

• Founding sociologists like August Comte and Herbert Spencer sought to model sociology on natural sciences with concepts like social physics and statistical dynamics.
• Ongoing debate about whether sociology fits rigid definitions of science, as it doesn't always adhere to parameters expected of natural science.
• Karl Popper critiques positivism as insufficient for science, encouraging a broader understanding of scientific inquiry as a methodology rather than a body of knowledge.
• Sociology can meet scientific criteria through aspects like intersubjective reliability, objectivity (while acknowledging the limitations), quantifiability of phenomena, and theoretical orientation.

Scientific Method

• Steps of the scientific method include identifying problems, reviewing literature, constructing hypotheses, collecting data, checking reliability, testing hypotheses, and presenting data.
• Criticisms of the scientific method argue that it is just one of many approaches to knowledge, and glorifying it may hinder overall intellectual growth.
• Thomas Kuhn acknowledges that scientific revolutions can emerge from both scientific and non-scientific methodologies.

Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology

• Sociology utilizes the scientific method involving observation, experimentation, generalization, and verification to create and validate knowledge.
• Theory construction is essential to give context to observed facts and facilitate understanding of social phenomena.
• Positivism emphasizes that genuine knowledge must be verifiable through empirical evidence and represents an evolving perspective on the nature of knowledge.

Auguste Comte's Contributions

• Comte introduced positivism, suggesting that legitimate knowledge arises from empirical experiences, leading to his advocacy for sociology as a rigorous science.
• He classified sciences by their degree of "positivity," with sociology being viewed as the 'Queen of Sciences' due to its complexity.
• Comte's "law of three stages" posits that society evolves through theological, metaphysical, and positive phases in its understanding of truth.### Comte's Phases of Human Development
• Theological Phase: Humanity relies on church doctrines rather than rational thought; facts are accepted based on religious authority.
• Metaphysical Phase: Emerged post-Enlightenment, prioritizes universal human rights over church doctrine; led to various political regimes focused on these rights.
• Positive Phase: Celebrates self-governance and individual rights; no higher authority governs human behavior, highlighting free will.

Positivism by Auguste Comte

• Defines a framework for understanding society as a sequence of cause and effect; emphasizes empirical evidence.
• Requires understanding of previous phases to progress toward scientific observations in sociology.

Key Constituents of Positivism

• Empiricism: Focus on observable phenomena.
• Inductivism: Emphasizing the importance of factual data.
• Naturalism: The influence of the environment on human actions.

Influence of John Locke

• Considered an early champion of positivism, advocating for understanding the world through observable cause-and-effect relationships.

Contributions by Early Sociologists

• Saint Simon: Pioneered sociology as "social physics."
• Herbert Spencer: Promoted the organismic analogy for societal study.
• Emile Durkheim: Introduced the concept of social facts; studied customs and their effects on society, notably in theories of division of labor and suicide.
• Robert K. Merton: Analyzed social behavior using concepts like relative deprivation through empirical research.

Karl Marx's Perspective

• Acknowledged for utilizing historical data while integrating revolutionary elements and romantic philosophy in discussions of capitalism and exploitation.

Critiques of Positivism

• Interpretative School: Advocated by Weber, suggesting human behavior can't be studied as natural sciences.
• Postmodernists: Argued that multiple realities exist and should be acknowledged.
• Interactionists: Stressed the significance of actions and social interactions.
• Critics of Objectivity: Suggested complete separation of facts and values is impossible.

Non-Positivist Methodologies

• Emphasizes the subjective nature of human experience, focusing on interpretation over quantitative data.
• Ethnomethodology: Explores how individuals construct and negotiate their reality; studies everyday practices of society members.
• Phenomenology: Investigates variability in human experience, focusing on pre-reflexive consciousness and the meanings derived from lived experiences.

Key Figures in Non-Positivist Thought

• Edmund Husserl: Founded phenomenology; emphasized the importance of consciousness and individual experience.
• Alfred Schutz: Linked sociology with lived experience, viewing social structures as contexts for human interaction.

General Elements of Non-Positivist Methodologies

• Focus on internal perspectives of human experience rather than external observations.
• Challenges the applicability of natural science methods to social phenomena.
• Acknowledges the complexity and subjectivity inherent in human behavior.

Conclusion

• The shift from strict positivist approaches to more interpretative and phenomenological methods enriches the understanding of social dynamics.
• Acknowledgment of diverse perspectives is crucial for comprehensive sociological inquiry.### Husserl and Phenomenology
• Systematic investigation of consciousness.
• Husserl rejected the notion that external objects exist independently; argued for reliance on personal consciousness.
• Certainty arises from direct experience, ignoring anything external, treating realities as pure 'phenomena.'
• Named his philosophical method 'phenomenology,' focusing on the study of pure phenomena.
• Notable phenomenologists include Peter Berger and Alfred Schutz.

Symbolic Interactionism

• A theoretical framework emphasizing the creation of self-concept through interpretation of symbolic gestures, words, actions, and others' appearances during social interactions.
• Coined by Herbert Blumer, building on George Herbert Mead's ideas.

Four Basic Tenets of Symbolic Interactionism

• Actions are responses to the meanings objects or gestures hold for individuals.

• Interactions occur within defined social contexts where meanings are collectively understood.

• Meanings evolve from continuous interactions within society, illustrated by childhood learning processes.

• Meanings are dynamic and can change through social interaction.

• Blumer emphasized qualitative research and 'sympathetic introspection' for understanding human behavior.

Deconstruction and Discourse

• Deconstruction involves analyzing subjects by breaking them down into smaller parts for context and historical understanding.
• Textual analysis assumes that meaning is not fixed, changing over time or through perspective.
• Foucault defines discourse as ways of constituting knowledge along with associated social practices and power relations.

Positivism and Its Critique

• Objectivity is defined as freedom from personal biases; encompasses fact (empirically verifiable) and value (desirable).

The View from Nowhere

• Thomas Nagel’s concept of objective qualities highlights that perceptions are influenced by individual perspective but objective reality remains constant.

• Bernard Williams refers to this view as the 'absolute conception.'

• Thomas Kuhn posits that observations are theory-laden, shaped by underlying paradigms.

Value Freedom in Scientific Inquiry

• Max Weber identified four stages where values affect scientific inquiry: choosing a research problem, gathering evidence, accepting hypotheses, and applying research results.
• Contextual values influence the choice of topics and the societal relevance of scientific problems.

Value-Free Ideal

• Scientists should minimize contextual values during data collection and theory assessment to maintain objectivity.
• Cognitive values indicate a theory's truth, such as predictive accuracy, scope, and explanatory power.

Perspectives on Fact, Value, and Objectivity

• Positivism posits a dichotomy between fact and value.
• Jurgen Habermas argues that complete separation is impossible due to human-centric study.
• Vilfredo Pareto advocates for studying 'what is' instead of 'what ought to be.'

Challenges to Objectivity

• Problems arise at various stages: topic choice, data accumulation, and theory testing, leading to potential biases.
• Critiques of different interpretations of the same facts underscore the influence of researchers' viewpoints.

Ensuring Objectivity

• Comte suggests positivist methods for studying macro aspects.
• Durkheim emphasizes inductive techniques and statistical analysis.
• Other suggestions for maintaining objectivity include peer reviews, acknowledging biases, and using triangulation to validate findings.

Quiz

• Key thinkers in positivism: Auguste Comte and Max Weber.
• Weber introduced the concepts of Verstehen and Ideal Types to enhance objectivity in research.

Explore the key concepts of Chapter 2 in Research Methodology. This quiz covers the scientific method, positivism, and critiques of various research methodologies. Test your understanding of objectivity and the distinctions between fact and value.