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Questions and Answers
What term does Kuhn use to describe a world view in science?
What term does Kuhn use to describe a world view in science?
Paradigms
Who is the author of 'The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'?
Who is the author of 'The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'?
According to Karl Popper, knowledge should be built by trying to prove theories wrong.
According to Karl Popper, knowledge should be built by trying to prove theories wrong.
True
What does Karl Popper criticize about inductive thinking?
What does Karl Popper criticize about inductive thinking?
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What is considered a flaw of inductivism according to David Deutsch?
What is considered a flaw of inductivism according to David Deutsch?
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What are Popper's 'provisional conjectures'?
What are Popper's 'provisional conjectures'?
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What is the philosophy that closely aligns with the naturalistic paradigm?
What is the philosophy that closely aligns with the naturalistic paradigm?
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Phenomenologists assume that knowledge is obtained through interactions with researchers and participants.
Phenomenologists assume that knowledge is obtained through interactions with researchers and participants.
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Which of the following is NOT a condition of science according to Karl Popper?
Which of the following is NOT a condition of science according to Karl Popper?
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What does the term 'positivism' refer to?
What does the term 'positivism' refer to?
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Who founded the philosophical movement of phenomenology?
Who founded the philosophical movement of phenomenology?
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What is the primary focus of sociology as discussed in the text?
What is the primary focus of sociology as discussed in the text?
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Which of the following are tenets of symbolic interactionism? (Select all that apply)
Which of the following are tenets of symbolic interactionism? (Select all that apply)
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Edmund Husserl's philosophical method is known as ______.
Edmund Husserl's philosophical method is known as ______.
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Sociology employs the same general methods of investigation as the __________ sciences.
Sociology employs the same general methods of investigation as the __________ sciences.
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Which of the following researchers aimed to develop sociology on the basis of natural science?
Which of the following researchers aimed to develop sociology on the basis of natural science?
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What does Hahn’s view on objectivity assert?
What does Hahn’s view on objectivity assert?
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What does sociology rely on for its methodology?
What does sociology rely on for its methodology?
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What does 'deconstruction' analyze?
What does 'deconstruction' analyze?
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According to Thomas Nagel, the perception of reality is influenced by an individual's perspective.
According to Thomas Nagel, the perception of reality is influenced by an individual's perspective.
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Sociology can fulfill all conditions of natural science.
Sociology can fulfill all conditions of natural science.
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Match the following thinkers with their contributions:
Match the following thinkers with their contributions:
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What term refers to the absence of personal bias in scientific research?
What term refers to the absence of personal bias in scientific research?
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Which of the following is NOT a cognitive value according to Kuhn?
Which of the following is NOT a cognitive value according to Kuhn?
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The theory that values influence the choice of a research problem is proposed by ______.
The theory that values influence the choice of a research problem is proposed by ______.
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Which thinker is credited for introducing positivism in Sociology?
Which thinker is credited for introducing positivism in Sociology?
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Who gave the concept of Verstehen and Ideal Types to bring objectivity in research?
Who gave the concept of Verstehen and Ideal Types to bring objectivity in research?
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Sociology should be concerned with a subjective understanding of objective reality as per:
Sociology should be concerned with a subjective understanding of objective reality as per:
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An American sociologist, first to propose and systematise Ethnomethodology was:
An American sociologist, first to propose and systematise Ethnomethodology was:
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Alfred Schutz is associated with which sociological conception?
Alfred Schutz is associated with which sociological conception?
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Who gave the following four methods for the study of Sociology - Observation, Experimentation, Historical and Comparative?
Who gave the following four methods for the study of Sociology - Observation, Experimentation, Historical and Comparative?
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An anarchy as per which any discipline not following scientific method should not be taken seriously, is called as:
An anarchy as per which any discipline not following scientific method should not be taken seriously, is called as:
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Functionalist and Conflict theorists fall under the category of Positivism:
Functionalist and Conflict theorists fall under the category of Positivism:
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Who said Positivism vs Non-Positivism debate is a 60s hangover?
Who said Positivism vs Non-Positivism debate is a 60s hangover?
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What are the three phases of social evolution proposed by Auguste Comte?
What are the three phases of social evolution proposed by Auguste Comte?
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Mead, Cooley, Blumer are some of the influential scholars belonging to the following perspective:
Mead, Cooley, Blumer are some of the influential scholars belonging to the following perspective:
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Which phase is characterized by a belief in God as supreme over human existence?
Which phase is characterized by a belief in God as supreme over human existence?
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The Metaphysical Phase states that the universal rights of humanity are most important.
The Metaphysical Phase states that the universal rights of humanity are most important.
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What is the primary importance in the Positive Phase according to Comte?
What is the primary importance in the Positive Phase according to Comte?
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Which of the following is NOT one of the three constituents of Positivism?
Which of the following is NOT one of the three constituents of Positivism?
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What term does Comte use to describe the degree to which phenomena can be exactly determined?
What term does Comte use to describe the degree to which phenomena can be exactly determined?
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Who were the early sociologists mentioned in relation to positivism?
Who were the early sociologists mentioned in relation to positivism?
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Which sociologist is known for his study of reference group behavior?
Which sociologist is known for his study of reference group behavior?
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Positivism holds that introspective knowledge is valuable in scientific studies.
Positivism holds that introspective knowledge is valuable in scientific studies.
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Which methodology focuses on everyday practices through which individuals construct and negotiate reality?
Which methodology focuses on everyday practices through which individuals construct and negotiate reality?
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What critique is associated with ethnomethodology?
What critique is associated with ethnomethodology?
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Emile Durkheim studied suicide rates using a ________ perspective.
Emile Durkheim studied suicide rates using a ________ perspective.
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Which philosophical perspective rejects the methods of natural sciences for the study of human behavior?
Which philosophical perspective rejects the methods of natural sciences for the study of human behavior?
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Neo-positivism emphasizes qualitative research methods.
Neo-positivism emphasizes qualitative research methods.
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Study Notes
Science, Scientific Method, and Critique
- Thomas Kuhn's concept of "paradigms" refers to universally recognized scientific achievements that shape the worldview of a scientific community.
- Paradigms can provide answers but may also be fundamentally wrong; real discovery starts with recognizing anomalies.
- Distinction between "normal" science (accepts existing theories) and "revolutionary" science (challenges existing paradigms) according to Kuhn.
- Karl Popper criticized traditional methods of grounding theories in induction, advocating for falsifiability as a way to test the robustness of scientific theories.
- Popper introduced the idea that scientific theories are "provisional conjectures" subject to disproof rather than definitive proof.
- David Deutsch highlighted the limitations of empiricism and the necessity for explanations that can transcend mere observation.
- Problems arise when existing theories conflict with expectations, necessitating new explanations beyond the current understanding.
Sociology as a Science
- Founding sociologists like August Comte and Herbert Spencer sought to model sociology on natural sciences with concepts like social physics and statistical dynamics.
- Ongoing debate about whether sociology fits rigid definitions of science, as it doesn't always adhere to parameters expected of natural science.
- Karl Popper critiques positivism as insufficient for science, encouraging a broader understanding of scientific inquiry as a methodology rather than a body of knowledge.
- Sociology can meet scientific criteria through aspects like intersubjective reliability, objectivity (while acknowledging the limitations), quantifiability of phenomena, and theoretical orientation.
Scientific Method
- Steps of the scientific method include identifying problems, reviewing literature, constructing hypotheses, collecting data, checking reliability, testing hypotheses, and presenting data.
- Criticisms of the scientific method argue that it is just one of many approaches to knowledge, and glorifying it may hinder overall intellectual growth.
- Thomas Kuhn acknowledges that scientific revolutions can emerge from both scientific and non-scientific methodologies.
Theoretical Strands of Research Methodology
- Sociology utilizes the scientific method involving observation, experimentation, generalization, and verification to create and validate knowledge.
- Theory construction is essential to give context to observed facts and facilitate understanding of social phenomena.
- Positivism emphasizes that genuine knowledge must be verifiable through empirical evidence and represents an evolving perspective on the nature of knowledge.
Auguste Comte's Contributions
- Comte introduced positivism, suggesting that legitimate knowledge arises from empirical experiences, leading to his advocacy for sociology as a rigorous science.
- He classified sciences by their degree of "positivity," with sociology being viewed as the 'Queen of Sciences' due to its complexity.
- Comte's "law of three stages" posits that society evolves through theological, metaphysical, and positive phases in its understanding of truth.### Comte's Phases of Human Development
- Theological Phase: Humanity relies on church doctrines rather than rational thought; facts are accepted based on religious authority.
- Metaphysical Phase: Emerged post-Enlightenment, prioritizes universal human rights over church doctrine; led to various political regimes focused on these rights.
- Positive Phase: Celebrates self-governance and individual rights; no higher authority governs human behavior, highlighting free will.
Positivism by Auguste Comte
- Defines a framework for understanding society as a sequence of cause and effect; emphasizes empirical evidence.
- Requires understanding of previous phases to progress toward scientific observations in sociology.
Key Constituents of Positivism
- Empiricism: Focus on observable phenomena.
- Inductivism: Emphasizing the importance of factual data.
- Naturalism: The influence of the environment on human actions.
Influence of John Locke
- Considered an early champion of positivism, advocating for understanding the world through observable cause-and-effect relationships.
Contributions by Early Sociologists
- Saint Simon: Pioneered sociology as "social physics."
- Herbert Spencer: Promoted the organismic analogy for societal study.
- Emile Durkheim: Introduced the concept of social facts; studied customs and their effects on society, notably in theories of division of labor and suicide.
- Robert K. Merton: Analyzed social behavior using concepts like relative deprivation through empirical research.
Karl Marx's Perspective
- Acknowledged for utilizing historical data while integrating revolutionary elements and romantic philosophy in discussions of capitalism and exploitation.
Critiques of Positivism
- Interpretative School: Advocated by Weber, suggesting human behavior can't be studied as natural sciences.
- Postmodernists: Argued that multiple realities exist and should be acknowledged.
- Interactionists: Stressed the significance of actions and social interactions.
- Critics of Objectivity: Suggested complete separation of facts and values is impossible.
Non-Positivist Methodologies
- Emphasizes the subjective nature of human experience, focusing on interpretation over quantitative data.
- Ethnomethodology: Explores how individuals construct and negotiate their reality; studies everyday practices of society members.
- Phenomenology: Investigates variability in human experience, focusing on pre-reflexive consciousness and the meanings derived from lived experiences.
Key Figures in Non-Positivist Thought
- Edmund Husserl: Founded phenomenology; emphasized the importance of consciousness and individual experience.
- Alfred Schutz: Linked sociology with lived experience, viewing social structures as contexts for human interaction.
General Elements of Non-Positivist Methodologies
- Focus on internal perspectives of human experience rather than external observations.
- Challenges the applicability of natural science methods to social phenomena.
- Acknowledges the complexity and subjectivity inherent in human behavior.
Conclusion
- The shift from strict positivist approaches to more interpretative and phenomenological methods enriches the understanding of social dynamics.
- Acknowledgment of diverse perspectives is crucial for comprehensive sociological inquiry.### Husserl and Phenomenology
- Systematic investigation of consciousness.
- Husserl rejected the notion that external objects exist independently; argued for reliance on personal consciousness.
- Certainty arises from direct experience, ignoring anything external, treating realities as pure 'phenomena.'
- Named his philosophical method 'phenomenology,' focusing on the study of pure phenomena.
- Notable phenomenologists include Peter Berger and Alfred Schutz.
Symbolic Interactionism
- A theoretical framework emphasizing the creation of self-concept through interpretation of symbolic gestures, words, actions, and others' appearances during social interactions.
- Coined by Herbert Blumer, building on George Herbert Mead's ideas.
Four Basic Tenets of Symbolic Interactionism
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Actions are responses to the meanings objects or gestures hold for individuals.
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Interactions occur within defined social contexts where meanings are collectively understood.
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Meanings evolve from continuous interactions within society, illustrated by childhood learning processes.
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Meanings are dynamic and can change through social interaction.
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Blumer emphasized qualitative research and 'sympathetic introspection' for understanding human behavior.
Deconstruction and Discourse
- Deconstruction involves analyzing subjects by breaking them down into smaller parts for context and historical understanding.
- Textual analysis assumes that meaning is not fixed, changing over time or through perspective.
- Foucault defines discourse as ways of constituting knowledge along with associated social practices and power relations.
Positivism and Its Critique
- Objectivity is defined as freedom from personal biases; encompasses fact (empirically verifiable) and value (desirable).
The View from Nowhere
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Thomas Nagel’s concept of objective qualities highlights that perceptions are influenced by individual perspective but objective reality remains constant.
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Bernard Williams refers to this view as the 'absolute conception.'
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Thomas Kuhn posits that observations are theory-laden, shaped by underlying paradigms.
Value Freedom in Scientific Inquiry
- Max Weber identified four stages where values affect scientific inquiry: choosing a research problem, gathering evidence, accepting hypotheses, and applying research results.
- Contextual values influence the choice of topics and the societal relevance of scientific problems.
Value-Free Ideal
- Scientists should minimize contextual values during data collection and theory assessment to maintain objectivity.
- Cognitive values indicate a theory's truth, such as predictive accuracy, scope, and explanatory power.
Perspectives on Fact, Value, and Objectivity
- Positivism posits a dichotomy between fact and value.
- Jurgen Habermas argues that complete separation is impossible due to human-centric study.
- Vilfredo Pareto advocates for studying 'what is' instead of 'what ought to be.'
Challenges to Objectivity
- Problems arise at various stages: topic choice, data accumulation, and theory testing, leading to potential biases.
- Critiques of different interpretations of the same facts underscore the influence of researchers' viewpoints.
Ensuring Objectivity
- Comte suggests positivist methods for studying macro aspects.
- Durkheim emphasizes inductive techniques and statistical analysis.
- Other suggestions for maintaining objectivity include peer reviews, acknowledging biases, and using triangulation to validate findings.
Quiz
- Key thinkers in positivism: Auguste Comte and Max Weber.
- Weber introduced the concepts of Verstehen and Ideal Types to enhance objectivity in research.
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Description
Explore the key concepts of Chapter 2 in Research Methodology. This quiz covers the scientific method, positivism, and critiques of various research methodologies. Test your understanding of objectivity and the distinctions between fact and value.
