Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes the primary goal of research ethics?
Which of the following best describes the primary goal of research ethics?
- To expedite the research process and ensure timely publication of findings.
- To promote the career advancement of researchers.
- To protect research participants from potential harm. (correct)
- To guarantee that researchers receive appropriate recognition and funding.
Researchers have sole responsibility for ethical conduct in research. Institutions and ERBs play no role.
Researchers have sole responsibility for ethical conduct in research. Institutions and ERBs play no role.
False (B)
List three elements that should be included in the informed consent process.
List three elements that should be included in the informed consent process.
information, consent to participate, and consent for data use
__________ in research involves the principles designed to govern the practices of researchers and ensure the protection of research participants.
__________ in research involves the principles designed to govern the practices of researchers and ensure the protection of research participants.
Which action constitutes a violation of scholarly ethics?
Which action constitutes a violation of scholarly ethics?
Match the type of harm with its potential consequence:
Match the type of harm with its potential consequence:
Why is it important to consider the emotional, physical, and financial impacts that research may have on participants?
Why is it important to consider the emotional, physical, and financial impacts that research may have on participants?
Informed consent is solely about obtaining a 'yes' from participants, without needing to fully understand the research.
Informed consent is solely about obtaining a 'yes' from participants, without needing to fully understand the research.
Which of the following is the primary purpose of a literature review?
Which of the following is the primary purpose of a literature review?
An annotated bibliography is the same as a traditional literature review, both serving the primary purpose of summarizing research articles.
An annotated bibliography is the same as a traditional literature review, both serving the primary purpose of summarizing research articles.
In quantitative research, what characteristic makes a measurement instrument reliable?
In quantitative research, what characteristic makes a measurement instrument reliable?
In a research study, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on another variable is known as the ______ variable.
In a research study, the variable that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on another variable is known as the ______ variable.
Which of the following is NOT a typical section in a research report or journal article?
Which of the following is NOT a typical section in a research report or journal article?
Match the type of journal article with its description:
Match the type of journal article with its description:
What is the initial step recommended when reading a journal article to quickly ascertain its relevance to your research?
What is the initial step recommended when reading a journal article to quickly ascertain its relevance to your research?
A hypothesis in quantitative research is a prediction that cannot be empirically tested or verified through experimentation.
A hypothesis in quantitative research is a prediction that cannot be empirically tested or verified through experimentation.
What is the main purpose of including a problem statement in the introduction section of a research article?
What is the main purpose of including a problem statement in the introduction section of a research article?
In the example, 'Taking aspirin daily reduces the chance of having a heart attack,' which variable is the independent variable?
In the example, 'Taking aspirin daily reduces the chance of having a heart attack,' which variable is the independent variable?
Which philosophical dimension explores the nature of reality and existence?
Which philosophical dimension explores the nature of reality and existence?
Post-positivism asserts that social reality is entirely objective and unaffected by context.
Post-positivism asserts that social reality is entirely objective and unaffected by context.
What is the term for the frameworks or models through which we interpret and understand the world in research?
What is the term for the frameworks or models through which we interpret and understand the world in research?
Axiology is primarily concerned with the study of ______ in research.
Axiology is primarily concerned with the study of ______ in research.
Match the research purpose with its corresponding question type:
Match the research purpose with its corresponding question type:
In research, 'values are operationalized' means:
In research, 'values are operationalized' means:
A linear research path is characterized by its cyclical nature, with frequent changes of direction based on emerging findings.
A linear research path is characterized by its cyclical nature, with frequent changes of direction based on emerging findings.
Which research approach typically begins with a theory and tests hypotheses using numerical data?
Which research approach typically begins with a theory and tests hypotheses using numerical data?
Research that involves the generation of data and requires following research protocols such as ethics review is known as ______ research.
Research that involves the generation of data and requires following research protocols such as ethics review is known as ______ research.
What is the primary goal of research, according to Darian-Smith & McCarthy (2017)?
What is the primary goal of research, according to Darian-Smith & McCarthy (2017)?
Which consideration is LEAST important when evaluating a research question?
Which consideration is LEAST important when evaluating a research question?
Secondary research involves collecting original data through surveys and experiments.
Secondary research involves collecting original data through surveys and experiments.
Which of the following is a key characteristic of a non-linear research path?
Which of the following is a key characteristic of a non-linear research path?
Qualitative research typically uses an ______ approach, generating new theory emerging from the data.
Qualitative research typically uses an ______ approach, generating new theory emerging from the data.
Give one example of a limitation researchers should consider when developing a research question.
Give one example of a limitation researchers should consider when developing a research question.
Which of the following ethical considerations is MOST relevant when conducting PAR research with immigrant populations?
Which of the following ethical considerations is MOST relevant when conducting PAR research with immigrant populations?
In international research, ethical considerations are homogenous regardless of the country or cultural context.
In international research, ethical considerations are homogenous regardless of the country or cultural context.
What potential impact can local gatekeepers or individuals in positions of authority have on research participants in international research settings?
What potential impact can local gatekeepers or individuals in positions of authority have on research participants in international research settings?
In communal societies, it's important to consider whose voices are shared and heard when conducting ______ interviews.
In communal societies, it's important to consider whose voices are shared and heard when conducting ______ interviews.
Match the philosophical assumption with its primary focus:
Match the philosophical assumption with its primary focus:
Which philosophical assumption shapes how researchers approach data collection and the methods they use?
Which philosophical assumption shapes how researchers approach data collection and the methods they use?
Objectivism, in ontology, posits that reality is dependent on social actors and their interpretations.
Objectivism, in ontology, posits that reality is dependent on social actors and their interpretations.
Briefly explain the difference between 'belief (doxa)' and 'knowledge (episteme)' as distinguished by Plato.
Briefly explain the difference between 'belief (doxa)' and 'knowledge (episteme)' as distinguished by Plato.
The term ______ refers to the visible aspects of research, such as data gathering techniques like interviews and surveys.
The term ______ refers to the visible aspects of research, such as data gathering techniques like interviews and surveys.
Which of the following BEST describes methodology in research?
Which of the following BEST describes methodology in research?
Quantitative research approaches primarily rely on interpretive methods like interviews and observations.
Quantitative research approaches primarily rely on interpretive methods like interviews and observations.
Explain how a researcher's ontological perspective might influence their choice of research methods.
Explain how a researcher's ontological perspective might influence their choice of research methods.
______ is concerned with procedures and processes in research and describes the logic the research is following.
______ is concerned with procedures and processes in research and describes the logic the research is following.
Which philosophical assumption deals explicitly with questions of value in research?
Which philosophical assumption deals explicitly with questions of value in research?
According to Plato, knowledge (episteme) is derived from sensory perception and is therefore changeable and unreliable.
According to Plato, knowledge (episteme) is derived from sensory perception and is therefore changeable and unreliable.
Which of the following best describes the purpose of a problem statement in research?
Which of the following best describes the purpose of a problem statement in research?
A null hypothesis aims to demonstrate a relationship between variables.
A null hypothesis aims to demonstrate a relationship between variables.
What are the key elements that should be included in a problem statement?
What are the key elements that should be included in a problem statement?
In qualitative research, an __________ approach is typically used, rather than attempting to convert social life into numbers.
In qualitative research, an __________ approach is typically used, rather than attempting to convert social life into numbers.
Match the research process milestones with their descriptions:
Match the research process milestones with their descriptions:
In the context of sampling, what is the 'accessible population'?
In the context of sampling, what is the 'accessible population'?
Which of the following is NOT a typical component of an informed consent form in research?
Which of the following is NOT a typical component of an informed consent form in research?
Generalizability refers to the degree to which a sample represents the diversity of the population.
Generalizability refers to the degree to which a sample represents the diversity of the population.
In Canada, compliance with the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS) is optional for university-based research involving human participants.
In Canada, compliance with the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS) is optional for university-based research involving human participants.
What are two primary reasons for using sampling in research?
What are two primary reasons for using sampling in research?
What is the primary role of an Ethics Review Board (ERB) in research?
What is the primary role of an Ethics Review Board (ERB) in research?
The process by which a researcher selects units of the population to be in the sample is known as ___________.
The process by which a researcher selects units of the population to be in the sample is known as ___________.
Which of the following is a key characteristic of probability sampling?
Which of the following is a key characteristic of probability sampling?
The principle of minimizing risk and maximizing benefits to research participants is known as ______.
The principle of minimizing risk and maximizing benefits to research participants is known as ______.
Match the following ethical principles with their descriptions:
Match the following ethical principles with their descriptions:
Quota sampling is a type of probability sampling.
Quota sampling is a type of probability sampling.
Define the term 'sampling frame'.
Define the term 'sampling frame'.
Which of the following is the best example of 'assent' in research involving children?
Which of the following is the best example of 'assent' in research involving children?
Which of the following research questions is most suitable for qualitative research?
Which of the following research questions is most suitable for qualitative research?
Covert research, where the researcher's identity is concealed, eliminates all potential ethical concerns.
Covert research, where the researcher's identity is concealed, eliminates all potential ethical concerns.
In a purpose statement, researchers often use terms like 'relate', 'compare', or 'describe' to indicate __________ among variables.
In a purpose statement, researchers often use terms like 'relate', 'compare', or 'describe' to indicate __________ among variables.
What is 'minimal risk' research, according to the TCPS 2 definition?
What is 'minimal risk' research, according to the TCPS 2 definition?
In the context of research ethics, ______ refers to the potential for researchers to assume a supportive or counseling role with participants, creating possible conflicts of interest.
In the context of research ethics, ______ refers to the potential for researchers to assume a supportive or counseling role with participants, creating possible conflicts of interest.
Match each sampling type with its description:
Match each sampling type with its description:
Which ethical principle is most directly concerned with ensuring that the benefits of research are available to the groups from which participants are drawn?
Which ethical principle is most directly concerned with ensuring that the benefits of research are available to the groups from which participants are drawn?
If a research participant decides to withdraw from a study halfway through, they are no longer entitled to any previously offered benefits or compensation.
If a research participant decides to withdraw from a study halfway through, they are no longer entitled to any previously offered benefits or compensation.
What considerations should be made when working with vulnerable groups in research?
What considerations should be made when working with vulnerable groups in research?
The term _____ refers to a potential ethical issue where a researcher's own values and beliefs may unduly influence the research process or interpretation of findings.
The term _____ refers to a potential ethical issue where a researcher's own values and beliefs may unduly influence the research process or interpretation of findings.
In the provided scenario regarding Sonia and her daughter, what immediate action should the interviewer take, according to the consent form example?
In the provided scenario regarding Sonia and her daughter, what immediate action should the interviewer take, according to the consent form example?
Research Ethics Board (REB) regulations are always sufficient to address all potential ethical dilemmas that may arise during a study.
Research Ethics Board (REB) regulations are always sufficient to address all potential ethical dilemmas that may arise during a study.
What is a primary disadvantage of relying on readily available subjects for a study?
What is a primary disadvantage of relying on readily available subjects for a study?
In probability sampling, increasing the sample size always guarantees a more representative sample.
In probability sampling, increasing the sample size always guarantees a more representative sample.
Define snowball sampling and explain its typical use case.
Define snowball sampling and explain its typical use case.
In systematic random sampling, the sampling interval is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired ______ size.
In systematic random sampling, the sampling interval is calculated by dividing the total population size by the desired ______ size.
Match the sampling methods with their descriptions:
Match the sampling methods with their descriptions:
What is the primary goal of probability sampling?
What is the primary goal of probability sampling?
Purposive sampling is most appropriate when the research aims to be conducted among a specific sub-group of people.
Purposive sampling is most appropriate when the research aims to be conducted among a specific sub-group of people.
Explain how conscious or unconscious sampling bias can threaten the validity of a study and give an example.
Explain how conscious or unconscious sampling bias can threaten the validity of a study and give an example.
In random selection, each element's selection is ______ of any other event in the selection process.
In random selection, each element's selection is ______ of any other event in the selection process.
Which type of question allows respondents to provide detailed, nuanced answers but may result in data that is difficult to compare across responses?
Which type of question allows respondents to provide detailed, nuanced answers but may result in data that is difficult to compare across responses?
Why is random selection important in probability sampling?
Why is random selection important in probability sampling?
Simple random sampling is always the most representative method, regardless of population characteristics.
Simple random sampling is always the most representative method, regardless of population characteristics.
Using jargon and acronyms in research questions is recommended to ensure clarity and precision, especially when the target audience consists of experts in the field.
Using jargon and acronyms in research questions is recommended to ensure clarity and precision, especially when the target audience consists of experts in the field.
What are the limitations of simple random sampling?
What are the limitations of simple random sampling?
During an interview, what are some non-verbal encouragement techniques a researcher can use to create a comfortable and open environment for the participant?
During an interview, what are some non-verbal encouragement techniques a researcher can use to create a comfortable and open environment for the participant?
A weakness of systematic random sampling is that the ______ of the people in the list could lead to a sample that only represents a specific demographic.
A weakness of systematic random sampling is that the ______ of the people in the list could lead to a sample that only represents a specific demographic.
A researcher's awareness of their own gender, race, age, and other social identities, and the impact these may have on research participants, is referred to as their _______.
A researcher's awareness of their own gender, race, age, and other social identities, and the impact these may have on research participants, is referred to as their _______.
Match the art-based research approach with its description:
Match the art-based research approach with its description:
In systematic random sampling, if a researcher wants to select 30 participants from a population of 300, what should the sampling interval be?
In systematic random sampling, if a researcher wants to select 30 participants from a population of 300, what should the sampling interval be?
Increasing the homogeneity of a population decreases the confidence in the sample.
Increasing the homogeneity of a population decreases the confidence in the sample.
In qualitative research, why should researchers avoid asking too many 'why' questions?
In qualitative research, why should researchers avoid asking too many 'why' questions?
In art-based research, the final product (e.g., the artwork) is always more important than the process of creating it.
In art-based research, the final product (e.g., the artwork) is always more important than the process of creating it.
Besides asking for consent, what are two crucial ethical considerations when conducting research with children?
Besides asking for consent, what are two crucial ethical considerations when conducting research with children?
Art-based research emphasizes that we experience the world through our bodies and senses, reflecting the idea that 'we do not have bodies, we _____ bodies'.
Art-based research emphasizes that we experience the world through our bodies and senses, reflecting the idea that 'we do not have bodies, we _____ bodies'.
Which of the following is a primary benefit of using art-based research methods with specific groups of people?
Which of the following is a primary benefit of using art-based research methods with specific groups of people?
Which sampling method involves dividing a population into subgroups and then randomly selecting subjects proportionally from each subgroup?
Which sampling method involves dividing a population into subgroups and then randomly selecting subjects proportionally from each subgroup?
Disproportionate stratified sampling gives all subgroups an equal chance of being selected, regardless of their size.
Disproportionate stratified sampling gives all subgroups an equal chance of being selected, regardless of their size.
What is the primary advantage of using cluster sampling when studying a large population?
What is the primary advantage of using cluster sampling when studying a large population?
__________ stratified sampling ensures that each stratum is proportionate to its population size when viewed against the entire population.
__________ stratified sampling ensures that each stratum is proportionate to its population size when viewed against the entire population.
Match the sampling method with its description:
Match the sampling method with its description:
Which of the following is a significant limitation to consider when sampling across international borders?
Which of the following is a significant limitation to consider when sampling across international borders?
Gatekeepers, such as government officials, never pose a barrier to accessing populations for research.
Gatekeepers, such as government officials, never pose a barrier to accessing populations for research.
What is one example of a 'privileged population' that is more likely to be sampled, leading to potential bias?
What is one example of a 'privileged population' that is more likely to be sampled, leading to potential bias?
Researchers may face ___________ constraints when dealing with vulnerable populations, such as minors without parental consent.
Researchers may face ___________ constraints when dealing with vulnerable populations, such as minors without parental consent.
An interview is a method of collecting data on which of the following?
An interview is a method of collecting data on which of the following?
Structured interviews allow researchers to alter the way and order the questions are posed to participants.
Structured interviews allow researchers to alter the way and order the questions are posed to participants.
What type of interview is typically used in surveys to collect data that can be analyzed for statistical correlations?
What type of interview is typically used in surveys to collect data that can be analyzed for statistical correlations?
A semi-structured interview uses an interview __________ or map with a list of topics to discuss.
A semi-structured interview uses an interview __________ or map with a list of topics to discuss.
Which type of interview enables the interviewer to improvise follow-up questions based on participant responses?
Which type of interview enables the interviewer to improvise follow-up questions based on participant responses?
Which type of interview involves interviewing individuals who have in-depth knowledge about a topic or community?
Which type of interview involves interviewing individuals who have in-depth knowledge about a topic or community?
Flashcards
Ethics
Ethics
Moral principles that govern a person’s behaviour.
Research Ethics
Research Ethics
Principles that govern research practices and protect research participants.
Scholarly Ethics
Scholarly Ethics
Integrity in academic work, including proper citations and avoiding plagiarism.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism
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Ethical Research Practices
Ethical Research Practices
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Prevention of Harm
Prevention of Harm
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Privacy and Confidentiality
Privacy and Confidentiality
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Informed Consent
Informed Consent
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No Coercion in Research
No Coercion in Research
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Voluntary Participation
Voluntary Participation
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Protection of Vulnerable Groups
Protection of Vulnerable Groups
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Research Risk Mitigation
Research Risk Mitigation
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Right to Withdraw
Right to Withdraw
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Treating Participants with Respect
Treating Participants with Respect
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Assent in Research
Assent in Research
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TCPS Definition
TCPS Definition
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Tri-Council Agencies
Tri-Council Agencies
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Respect for Persons
Respect for Persons
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Beneficence in Research
Beneficence in Research
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Justice in Research
Justice in Research
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Respect for Communities
Respect for Communities
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Ethics Review Board
Ethics Review Board
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Literature Review
Literature Review
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Common Research Sources
Common Research Sources
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Annotated Bibliography
Annotated Bibliography
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Types of Journal Articles
Types of Journal Articles
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Research Article Structure
Research Article Structure
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Quantitative Design
Quantitative Design
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Independent Variable
Independent Variable
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Dependent Variable
Dependent Variable
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Hypothesis
Hypothesis
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Hypothesis in Research
Hypothesis in Research
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Axiology
Axiology
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Ontology
Ontology
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Epistemology
Epistemology
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Research Paradigm
Research Paradigm
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Positivism
Positivism
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Post-Positivism
Post-Positivism
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Goal of Research
Goal of Research
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Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research
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Deductive Approach
Deductive Approach
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Inductive Approach
Inductive Approach
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Linear Path
Linear Path
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Non-Linear Path
Non-Linear Path
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Primary Research
Primary Research
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Secondary Research
Secondary Research
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Research Problem
Research Problem
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Unpredicted Situations
Unpredicted Situations
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Unequal Power Relations
Unequal Power Relations
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Local Gatekeepers
Local Gatekeepers
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Monetary Compensation
Monetary Compensation
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Anonymity Challenges
Anonymity Challenges
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Consent and Assent
Consent and Assent
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Communal Societies
Communal Societies
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Philosophical Assumptions
Philosophical Assumptions
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Methods in Research
Methods in Research
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Research Methodology
Research Methodology
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Objectivism
Objectivism
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Subjectivism
Subjectivism
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Inclusion Criteria
Inclusion Criteria
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Researcher Bias (Sampling)
Researcher Bias (Sampling)
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Convenience Sampling
Convenience Sampling
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Weakness of Convenience Sampling
Weakness of Convenience Sampling
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Snowball Sampling
Snowball Sampling
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Purposive Sampling
Purposive Sampling
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Probability Sampling
Probability Sampling
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Sample Size & Representativeness
Sample Size & Representativeness
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Homogeneity & Representativeness
Homogeneity & Representativeness
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Sampling Bias
Sampling Bias
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Representative Sample
Representative Sample
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Random Selection
Random Selection
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Purpose of Random Selection
Purpose of Random Selection
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Simple Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
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Systematic Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
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Data Quality in Research
Data Quality in Research
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Closed-Ended Questions
Closed-Ended Questions
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Open-Ended Questions
Open-Ended Questions
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Developing Good Questions
Developing Good Questions
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Encouragement Techniques
Encouragement Techniques
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Researcher Positionality
Researcher Positionality
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Art-Based Research
Art-Based Research
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Benefits of Art-Based Research
Benefits of Art-Based Research
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Art in Research
Art in Research
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Artistic Inquiry and Content
Artistic Inquiry and Content
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Null Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
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Problem Statement Components
Problem Statement Components
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Purpose Statement
Purpose Statement
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Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
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Qualitative research
Qualitative research
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Research Process Milestones
Research Process Milestones
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Population
Population
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Accessible Population
Accessible Population
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Sample
Sample
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Sampling
Sampling
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Sampling Frame
Sampling Frame
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Sampling Methodology Principles
Sampling Methodology Principles
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Non-probability Sampling
Non-probability Sampling
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Systematic Sampling
Systematic Sampling
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Stratified Sampling
Stratified Sampling
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Proportionate Stratified Sampling
Proportionate Stratified Sampling
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Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
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Cluster Sampling
Cluster Sampling
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Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling
Multi-Stage Cluster Sampling
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Gatekeepers
Gatekeepers
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Interview
Interview
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Structured Interview
Structured Interview
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In-Depth Interviews
In-Depth Interviews
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Semi-Structured Interview
Semi-Structured Interview
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Unstructured Interview
Unstructured Interview
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Key Informant Interviewing
Key Informant Interviewing
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Elite Interviewing
Elite Interviewing
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Government Permission
Government Permission
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Study Notes
Understanding Ethics in Research
- Ethics are moral principles guiding behavior.
- Research ethics are principles protecting research participants.
- Researchers must consider the viewpoints of research participants.
- Participants' contributions to knowledge production should be valued.
- Research should consider emotional, physical, and financial impacts on participants.
- Participants should get info on available resources for any distress caused by the research.
- Reimbursement through honorariums is often provided for participants' time.
- The core of research ethics involves protecting participants from harm.
- Research with human participants needs ethics approval.
- Shared responsibility exists between researchers, institutions, and ERBs.
- A balance must be struck between potential harm and benefits.
Prevention of Harm
- Harm in research can be physical, psychological, social, or financial.
- Physical harm can occur during experiments.
- Psychological harm can result from gathering traumatic information.
- Social harm may be inflicted if sensitive information is revealed.
- Financial harm refers to economic consequences for participants.
- Privacy and confidentiality are crucial ethical considerations.
Essential Ethical Considerations
- Anonymity and confidentiality are essential.
- Informed consent needs information, consent to participate, and consent for data use.
- Fully understanding the research is more important than just saying 'yes'.
- Informed consent is not required in participant observation in public places, or in covert research.
- No coercion or persuasion is allowed in research.
- Voluntary participation is essential.
- Research must protect vulnerable groups.
- Research should not add risk to participants.
- Participants can skip sections or refuse to answer questions.
- Benefits should be provided regardless of participation level.
- Treating people fairly with respect is a key principle.
- Participants should not be discouraged from withdrawing.
Informed Consent
- The consent form should provide detailed information about the research project.
- It should explain participant activities and duration.
- It guarantees the right to withdraw at any time.
- It explains potential harms and how privacy is protected.
- It identifies investigators and the ERB.
Consent and Assent
- Assent is provided by minors or individuals without the capacity to consent.
- Third party consent is required from a parent, guardian, or official responsible for their care.
TCPS
- The Canadian Institute of Health Research, Natural Science and Engineering Research Council, and Social Science and Humanities Research Council formed a working group.
- The group created the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS): Ethical Conduct for Research Involving Humans.
- The TCPS is Canada's official guide for ethical research.
- All Canadian universities and research institutions should comply.
Other Ethical Principles
- Respect autonomy, decision-making, and dignity of participants.
- Beneficence involves minimizing risk and maximizing benefits.
- Justice means selecting participants from groups who may benefit.
- Respect communities and protect their values and interests.
- Care should be taken in all aspects of the research
ERB
- Universities usually have two levels of ethics review boards: Full and Delegated.
- A Full Research Ethics Board reviews research with greater than minimal risk.
- A Delegated REB review is for minimal risk research overseen by one individual.
Laurier ERB
- Minimal risk research has a probability and magnitude of possible harms no greater than those encountered in everyday life.
- Higher-risk procedures require review by the full board.
Ethics
- The principle of "do no harm" is foundational.
- Ethics Review Boards impact what and who gets researched, and how.
- Researchers foresee risk, and reviewers balance protection, security, and due diligence.
- Paternalism may lead to systematic silencing of some voices in research.
- Researchers should consider whose voices and experiences are presented.
Ethically Important Moments
- Research ethics balances confidentiality with protecting individuals against abuse.
- ERB regulations may not be sufficient for all risks.
- Interview processes can cause discomfort and vulnerability.
- Ethical dilemmas may arise related to values.
- Covert research involves deliberate concealment of the researcher's identity.
Examples
- Researchers must follow legal requirements to report child abuse cases.
- Relational ethics include dual roles, like researcher and counselor.
Ethics and International Research
- Unequal power relations impact participation.
- Local gatekeepers impact participants.
- Monetary compensation can be a form of coercion.
- Anonymity is difficult to ensure.
- Consent and assent can be affected by intergenerational relationships.
- Communal societies raise questions about whose voices are heard.
- Western concepts of research may not always apply internationally.
Week 3: Worldviews, Paradigms, Theories
- Four main philosophical assumptions guide research.
- These are epistemology, ontology, axiology, methods, and methodology.
- Each shapes decision-making processes like gathering knowledge and ethical dilemmas.
Methods
- Data gathering techniques include interviews, focus groups, and participant observations.
Methodology
- Methodology describes the logic the research is following.
- Explains process, procedures, and how the study will be done.
- Methodologies can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods.
- Quantitative research uses measurable, objective methods.
- Qualitative research relies on interpretive methods.
- Methodological approaches depend on ontological, axiological, and epistemological assumptions.
Epistemology
- Epistemology studies knowledge and its development.
- It addresses how we know what we claim to know and how to study things.
- Epistemology shapes data collection and methods.
- Knowledge can be discovered by researchers or socially constructed.
Ontology
- Ontology examines the nature of being.
- Objectivist: reality is external and independent. There is a single view or reality.
- Subjectivist: reality depends on social actors. Individuals shape social phenomena.
- Ontological perspectives influence belief in singular or multiple truths.
Axiology
- Axiology studies values and their role in research.
- Values guide researchers and are operationalized in research.
- Beliefs vary on whether research should be values-neutral or acknowledge inherent values and biases.
Philosophical Dimensions and Paradigms
- Ontology examines how we view reality.
- Epistemology examines how we know what we know.
- Axiology examines what we value.
Paradigms
- A research paradigm is a set of fundamental beliefs guiding the researcher's behavior.
- Paradigms shape the entire research process.
- Welanschauug (worldview)
Positivism/Post-Positivism
- Social reality is objective and external.
- Maintains separation between researcher and researched.
- Develops numeric measures for generalized knowledge.
- Tests theories and hypotheses with statistics.
- Believes in universality of knowledge/absolute truth.
- Oriented to cause and effect and influenced by theories.
- Post-positivism believes knowledge is a result of social conditioning.
- Social reality needs to be framed in a certain context.
- Follow rigorous research
Week 4: Design a Study: Initial Steps
- The goal of research is to create new knowledge that does not necessarily already exists.
- Social science researchers ask what is going on and why it is going on.
Deductive and Inductive Approaches
- The history of scientific methods goes back to Greek and Islamic scholars.
- Quantitative research starts with theory and has deductive approach.
- Qualitative research has an inductive approach and generates new theory.
- Both types of research rely on empirical observations and logical analysis.
- WE need to use different research approaches in global studies research!
Linear and Non-Linear Path in Research Process
- Linear Path follows a fixed sequence of steps.
- Non-linear Path is cyclical and changes based on findings.
Empirical/Primary Research vs. Secondary Research
- Primary research involves generating data.
- Secondary research analyzes existing data.
Research Process
- It usually starts with a research problem/issue/puzzle.
- Problem-based research needs a clear challenge.
Developing Research Question
- Choose a topic then evaluate its potential.
- Refine the question and think about limitations.
- A research question should be clear, focused, and complex.
- Literature review helps refine questions.
Literature Review
- It is a systematic examination of previous studies.
- It summarizes recent studies, findings, and methods.
- Documentation of sources is necessary, with various citation styles.
- It helps narrow topics, inform knowledge, demonstrate methods, and stimulate creativity.
Sources
- Common sources include books, journals, reports, and dissertations.
Annotated Bibliography
- Differs from traditional literature review.
- Lists citation info, summary, comments and analysis.
Journal Article
- Research reports present original research.
- Review articles survey previously published work.
- Theoretical articles evaluate and summarize previous work.
How to Read a Journal Article
- Start with the title and abstract.
- Then read discussion and conclusion.
- Read the entire article if the source is useful.
Designing the Study
- First, determine qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods approaches.
- Research design considerations vary based on approach.
Quantitative Design
- Quantitative research uses variables and relationships.
- Concepts should be defined and measurable.
- A clear hypothesis is required.
- Select or develop reliable and valid measurement instruments.
- Validity helps to show if findings are generalizable
- Reliability shows whether the instrument are tested and reliable.
Quantitative Design: Variables
- Independent variable (x) is manipulated and causes a reaction.
- Dependent variable (Y) is the result and outcome.
- Manipulator
- Cause
- Influencer
- Result
- Effect
- Outcome
- Outcome depend on independent variable.
Causal/Correlation Relationships and Hypothesis
- A hypothesis predicts study findings.
- It should identify expected variable relationships.
- It can be expressed as a prediction or expected future outcome.
- It should be an empirical statement that could bee verified by experiment (study).
- It should bee testablee to be true or false.
Hypothesis in Quantitative Research
- A hypothesis is a tentative explanation based on literature.
- Hypotheses are statements of expected findings, like "if...then" statements.
- Null hypothesis states there is no difference between variables.
Problem Statement Research
- Put the problem in context (what is already known).
- Shows the relevance of the problem (why does it need to be known.
Key Elements of the problem statement
- State that the problem exists.
- Provide evidence to support the problem's existence.
- Describe the issue and show the relevance of the problem.
- Set the objectives of the research.
Problem/Purpose statement
- Purpose statement identifies variables, relationships, participants, and site.
- Common words in purpose statements are "relate," "compare," "describe," and "examine".
- Research questions can start with "how", "what", or "why".
- Specify independent and dependent variables.
Qualitative Research
- Looks to social life from multiple perspectives.
- Explains how people construct meaning.
- Does not use variables or hypothesis.
- Uses inductive approach.
- Data gathering and analysis could be done simultaneously.
- Understanding social context is critical
- Case oriented
- Interpreation
Research Process: Major milestones
- Reflect as a researcher.
- Do a lit review on the interested subject to narrow down research question.
- Based on the question, think about design congruent with question.
- Think about sampling and recruitment of participants.
Examples
- Problem statement
- Research question/s (or hypothesis)
- Methodology
- Methods
- Any other details
Week 5: Sampling in Research
- Sample & Population - definitions
Sample & Population - definitions
- Population is the larger group to generalize about.
- Accessible population is the population you have access to.
- A Sample is a subset of the population to be observed.
- Sampling is the process of selecting units
- Sampling frame is a list of sampling entities.
- Sampling is needed when the population is too large or dispersed.
- Key to sampling - get a representative sample.
- Key sampling considerations are representatively and generalizability
Sampling
- Sampling is the process of selecting observations.
- Two major types of sampling.
Two Major Types of sampling
- Probability and non-probability sampling.
- Probability sampling involves random selection.
- Allows us to determine or control the likelihood of specific individuals being selected for the study.
- Even though probability sampling is quite precise, it is not always possible to use probability sampling techniques.
- Non-probability selection does not have a random selection.
Non-Probability Sampling
- Quota sampling gathers data in the same proportion as represented in the population.
- Reliance on available subjects or accidental sampling is a sampling procedure that relies on available subjects.
- The term snowball refers to the process of accumulation as each located subject suggests other subjects
- Purposive/judgment sampling is a method in which the researcher uses own judgment/ knowledge in selecting sample members.
The main logic of probability sampling
- Is to improve representation of its population if all members of that population have an equal chance of being selected in sample.
- It tries to make the sample as more approximate as possible to the general population.
- The larger the sample, the more confident we are in the representatives of a sample of any size.
- The more homogenous the population, the more confident we are in the representatives of a sample of any size.
Avoiding Probability Sampling 'Threats'
- Challenges that can occur in probability sampling.
- Conscious and unconscious sampling bias - the selected representative of the larger populations.
- Representatives and probability selection - the sample is representative of its.
Random Selection
- Selects a population with a set of elements that accurately describe/portary the total population from which the elements are selected.
- Serves as a check on conscious bias.
Probability Sampling
- Simple random sampling.
- Researcher assigns single number to each element.
- A table of random numbers is then used to select elements for the sample.
- This design has limitations.
Probability Sampling- Systematic random sampling
- Requires a list of population to be researched.
- It systematically takes every _th element into the sample.
- Weekness- the periodicity of the people in the list could be done in such a way that sampling will represent only specific gender, race, and age and ect.
Stratified Sampling
- Allows the creation of a greater degree of representatives in the sample.
- In this design, it is necessary to divide the population into different sub-groups or strata and then randomly selects the final subjects proportionally from the different strata.
Cluster sampling
- Is one of the most efficient ways of sampling.
- It may be used when it is not possible to compile a list of all elements that comprises the larger population.
- Cluster sampling is useful when clusters occur naturally, such as schools, universities, hospitals or other organizations.
- The cluster becomes a unit of analysis and therefor could be considered as a representative of the population.
Multistage cluster sampling
- It is used when it is not practical to create a list containing all the elements within the target population.
- A multistage cluster sample is constructed by employing two or more layers of cluster sampling in the design.
- It involves repeating two basic steps: creating lists of sampling units and sampling from them.
Limitations of sampling and access across borders
- Hard to get access all the population (e.g. immigrants, unhoused, inmates).
- Privilege population is more likely to be sampled (e.g. home owners, middle class).
- Gatekeepers (gov. Officials, leaders, or organizations).
- Researchers may need permission from government officials.
- Ethical constraints.
- Physicals barriers.
- Security/armed conflict/sensitive topics.
- Interpreters/translator.
Week 6: Data Collection Methods
- Interview is a mode of systematic inquiry.
- Interview is a method of collecting data on reported behaviour, emotions, opinions, perceptions, reactions, and rational for beehaviour.
- Interviewing skills involve observation, empathetic sensitivity and intellectual judgement.
- Interviewing may be structured, following interview schedule.
- In-depth interviews, can uncover rich descriptive data on the personal experiences and perceptions of participants.
- Semi structured - interview guide or map with the list of topics to discuss during the interview.
Semi-Structured and Unstructured Interviews
- Semi-structured interview is a qualitative data collection strategy.
- Series of [erdetermined but open-ended questions with probes
- The researcher has more control over the topics of the interview then in unstructured interviews.
- Unstructured interview enables the interviewer to improvise follow-up questions based on participants responses (could be done in semi-structured interview too.)
Interviews -
- Key informant interviewing - with individuals who have in-depth knowledge about a topic or community
- Elite interviewing - involves individuals who have social, economic and political power in a society
- Peer interviewing - involves individuals who have direct experience with the topic under study, conducting interviews with their peers
- Dyadic interviews - two participants are interviewed together (they can interview each other.)
The art of asking questions
- How a researcher asks the questions will determine the quality of the data (+ having access to diverse sample is important, which could be ensured with involvement of community members.)
Three different types of questions
- Closed-ended (or fixed-choice) and open-ended questions
- Closed-ended questions do not offer an opportunity to provide our own answers.
- Open-ended questions usually used in qualitative studies (but sometimes, used in survey research too), respondents can provide rich responses/data.
Developing Questions
Clarity, no jargons, no acronyms. Questions may start from "What, how, where." You can start the interview by telling your own story to get the person involved and then ask your questions. Encouragement techniques in interview Be mindful of your body language Pause/silence Nod slowly, tilt head Encourage by " I see," "Ah yes," ect.
Some issues to consider
- Own positionality
- Clothing.
- Interviewing experience.
- Access
- Confidentiality/consent forms/child.
- Space and service.
What is Art-based research
- Systematic use of artistic processes as primary way of understanding experience.
- Engage various senses, Evocative
- Believe that we experience the world through our bodies, through our senses
- "We do not have bodies, we are bodies."
- Arts in research/Examples
Art in research/examples
- Art could be used in research
- Participants make art become a data and the finds are given through art such
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Description
The quiz covers topics like research ethics, informed consent, scholarly ethics, and literature reviews. It also involves understanding potential impacts on participants.
