40 Questions
What is the main advantage of naturalistic observation?
Ecological validity
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
Lack of control over variables
What is the primary focus of a case study?
Single individuals or small groups
Why are case studies particularly useful?
They provide rich detail and real-world application
What is a disadvantage of naturalistic observation?
Observer bias
What is an advantage of case studies?
They offer rich detail and real-world application
What is a characteristic of naturalistic observation?
Minimal interference with the natural environment
What is an ethical consideration in naturalistic observation?
Observing participants without their knowledge or consent
What type of restriction occurs when the selection process affects a different variable that is correlated with the variable of interest?
Indirect restriction
What might be the impact of the age restriction on the correlation between age and gym attendance?
The correlation will be weaker than the true correlation
What is the benefit of gathering data from a wider range of people, including non-members?
It provides a more accurate picture of the correlation between age and gym attendance
What is test-retest reliability used to assess?
Stability of the dependent variable
What is internal consistency used to assess?
Stability of the dependent variable measured using multiple items or subtests
What is a null result?
No statistically significant difference is observed, but the effect might still be there
What is a negative result?
The data shows a statistically significant difference in the opposite direction of what was predicted
Why is it important to consider potential restrictions in research?
To ensure accurate results
What is the primary focus of contingency research in psychology?
Complex behaviors learned through trial and error
What is the main difference between contingency research and classical conditioning?
The complexity of behaviors learned
What is the primary benefit of using randomized controlled trials in research?
To minimize the influence of confounding variables
What is a key aspect of contingency research that distinguishes it from other fields of psychology?
The focus on human learning through trial and error
What is the term for the type of correlation where as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease?
Negative correlation
What is the purpose of statistical control in research?
To account for the influence of confounding variables
What is the confounding variable in the study examining the effect of studying time on test scores?
Prior knowledge of the subject
What is a strength of correlational research?
It is feasible and less expensive to conduct
What is the problem that can occur in correlation analysis when the range of values for one or both variables is limited compared to the entire population?
Restriction of range
What is the purpose of follow-up surveys in research?
To study the long-term effects of an experiment
What is a key research focus in contingency research?
Distinguishing relevant stimuli from irrelevant ones
What is direct restriction of range in correlation analysis?
When the selection process affects the variable of interest
What is the term for the type of correlation where there is no statistically significant relationship between the two variables?
No correlation
What is the purpose of being mindful during study design in research?
To minimize the influence of confounding variables
What is the outcome of restriction of range in correlation analysis?
The correlation is underestimated
What can be measured to minimize the influence of confounding variables in a study?
Both the dependent and independent variables
What does high internal consistency indicate in a research study?
The items are measuring the same underlying construct
What is the primary consequence of a floor effect in an experiment?
It makes it difficult to observe an improvement in the dependent variable
In an experiment, what is the purpose of a control variable?
To minimize its influence on the results
What occurs when a large proportion of participants score the highest possible score on the dependent variable?
A ceiling effect
What is an example of a situation where a floor effect might occur?
A study examining the effectiveness of a new exercise program on muscle strength
What is a consequence of a ceiling effect in an experiment?
It makes it difficult to observe a decline in the dependent variable
What is the main difference between a floor effect and a ceiling effect?
A floor effect occurs when the dependent variable is measured using an easy task, while a ceiling effect occurs when the dependent variable is measured using a difficult task
What is an example of a situation where a ceiling effect might occur?
A study examining the effectiveness of a new sleep medication on alertness
Study Notes
Research Design
- Naturalistic observation: a qualitative research method that involves observing and recording behavior in natural habitats or settings with minimal interference.
- Advantages of naturalistic observation:
- Ecological validity: observations are more representative of natural behavior
- Discovery of unexpected behaviors: allows for observation of unexpected behaviors
- Disadvantages of naturalistic observation:
- Lack of control: variables cannot be controlled
- Observer bias: researchers may interpret observations in a way that confirms their expectations
- Ethical considerations: may be unethical to observe subjects without their knowledge or consent
Case Study
- A detailed analysis of a single person or small group to explore the interplay of various factors
- Benefits of case studies:
- Rich detail: provides a nuanced understanding of the psychological experience
- Real-world application: offers insights into how psychological concepts manifest in real life
- Studying long-term effects: allows for follow-up surveys to examine long-term impact
Contingency Research
- Explores how we learn through associations between our actions and outcomes
- Key points:
- Roots in classical conditioning
- Focuses on complex behaviors learned through trial and error
- Humans actively explore their environment and observe consequences
- Research focus:
- Distinguishing relevant stimuli
- Surprise and expectation
- Memory and past experiences
- Types of reinforcement
Correlational Research
- Types of correlations:
- Positive correlation: one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase
- Negative correlation: one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease
- No correlation: no statistically significant relationship between variables
- Strengths of correlational research:
- Feasible: easier and less expensive to conduct compared to experiments
- Confounding variable:
- Ways to address: randomized controlled trials, statistical control, and being mindful during study design
- Example: studying the effect of studying time on test scores, with prior knowledge of the subject as a confounding variable
The Low Correlation
- Restriction of range: a problem that can occur in correlation analysis when the range of values for one or both variables is limited
- Types of restriction:
- Direct restriction: selection process directly affects the variable of interest
- Indirect restriction: selection process affects a different variable that's correlated with the variable of interest
- Example: a gym wants to see if there's a link between age and gym attendance, but the data is limited to current members, which may not represent the entire population
Variables in Experimental Research
- Independent variables: variables that are intentionally manipulated by the researcher
- Dependent variables: variables that are measured in response to the independent variable
- Null result: no statistically significant difference is observed, but the effect might still be there
- Negative result: the data shows a statistically significant difference, but in the opposite direction of what was predicted
- Indicators of stability: test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and others
Floor and Ceiling Effects
- Floor effect: when a large proportion of participants score the lowest possible score, making it difficult to observe any improvement
- Ceiling effect: when a large proportion of participants score the highest possible score, making it difficult to observe any decline
- Examples: exercise program and muscle strength, sleep medication and alertness
Control Variable
- A factor that is held constant throughout the experiment to minimize its influence on the results
Explore naturalistic observation, a qualitative research method used to study behavior in natural habitats, commonly used in zoology, anthropology, psychology, and sociology.
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