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Questions and Answers
What is the main advantage of naturalistic observation?
What is the main advantage of naturalistic observation?
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
What is a limitation of naturalistic observation?
What is the primary focus of a case study?
What is the primary focus of a case study?
Why are case studies particularly useful?
Why are case studies particularly useful?
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What is a disadvantage of naturalistic observation?
What is a disadvantage of naturalistic observation?
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What is an advantage of case studies?
What is an advantage of case studies?
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What is a characteristic of naturalistic observation?
What is a characteristic of naturalistic observation?
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What is an ethical consideration in naturalistic observation?
What is an ethical consideration in naturalistic observation?
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What type of restriction occurs when the selection process affects a different variable that is correlated with the variable of interest?
What type of restriction occurs when the selection process affects a different variable that is correlated with the variable of interest?
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What might be the impact of the age restriction on the correlation between age and gym attendance?
What might be the impact of the age restriction on the correlation between age and gym attendance?
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What is the benefit of gathering data from a wider range of people, including non-members?
What is the benefit of gathering data from a wider range of people, including non-members?
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What is test-retest reliability used to assess?
What is test-retest reliability used to assess?
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What is internal consistency used to assess?
What is internal consistency used to assess?
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What is a null result?
What is a null result?
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What is a negative result?
What is a negative result?
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Why is it important to consider potential restrictions in research?
Why is it important to consider potential restrictions in research?
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What is the primary focus of contingency research in psychology?
What is the primary focus of contingency research in psychology?
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What is the main difference between contingency research and classical conditioning?
What is the main difference between contingency research and classical conditioning?
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What is the primary benefit of using randomized controlled trials in research?
What is the primary benefit of using randomized controlled trials in research?
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What is a key aspect of contingency research that distinguishes it from other fields of psychology?
What is a key aspect of contingency research that distinguishes it from other fields of psychology?
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What is the term for the type of correlation where as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease?
What is the term for the type of correlation where as one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease?
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What is the purpose of statistical control in research?
What is the purpose of statistical control in research?
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What is the confounding variable in the study examining the effect of studying time on test scores?
What is the confounding variable in the study examining the effect of studying time on test scores?
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What is a strength of correlational research?
What is a strength of correlational research?
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What is the problem that can occur in correlation analysis when the range of values for one or both variables is limited compared to the entire population?
What is the problem that can occur in correlation analysis when the range of values for one or both variables is limited compared to the entire population?
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What is the purpose of follow-up surveys in research?
What is the purpose of follow-up surveys in research?
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What is a key research focus in contingency research?
What is a key research focus in contingency research?
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What is direct restriction of range in correlation analysis?
What is direct restriction of range in correlation analysis?
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What is the term for the type of correlation where there is no statistically significant relationship between the two variables?
What is the term for the type of correlation where there is no statistically significant relationship between the two variables?
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What is the purpose of being mindful during study design in research?
What is the purpose of being mindful during study design in research?
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What is the outcome of restriction of range in correlation analysis?
What is the outcome of restriction of range in correlation analysis?
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What can be measured to minimize the influence of confounding variables in a study?
What can be measured to minimize the influence of confounding variables in a study?
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What does high internal consistency indicate in a research study?
What does high internal consistency indicate in a research study?
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What is the primary consequence of a floor effect in an experiment?
What is the primary consequence of a floor effect in an experiment?
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In an experiment, what is the purpose of a control variable?
In an experiment, what is the purpose of a control variable?
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What occurs when a large proportion of participants score the highest possible score on the dependent variable?
What occurs when a large proportion of participants score the highest possible score on the dependent variable?
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What is an example of a situation where a floor effect might occur?
What is an example of a situation where a floor effect might occur?
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What is a consequence of a ceiling effect in an experiment?
What is a consequence of a ceiling effect in an experiment?
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What is the main difference between a floor effect and a ceiling effect?
What is the main difference between a floor effect and a ceiling effect?
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What is an example of a situation where a ceiling effect might occur?
What is an example of a situation where a ceiling effect might occur?
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Study Notes
Research Design
- Naturalistic observation: a qualitative research method that involves observing and recording behavior in natural habitats or settings with minimal interference.
- Advantages of naturalistic observation:
- Ecological validity: observations are more representative of natural behavior
- Discovery of unexpected behaviors: allows for observation of unexpected behaviors
- Disadvantages of naturalistic observation:
- Lack of control: variables cannot be controlled
- Observer bias: researchers may interpret observations in a way that confirms their expectations
- Ethical considerations: may be unethical to observe subjects without their knowledge or consent
Case Study
- A detailed analysis of a single person or small group to explore the interplay of various factors
- Benefits of case studies:
- Rich detail: provides a nuanced understanding of the psychological experience
- Real-world application: offers insights into how psychological concepts manifest in real life
- Studying long-term effects: allows for follow-up surveys to examine long-term impact
Contingency Research
- Explores how we learn through associations between our actions and outcomes
- Key points:
- Roots in classical conditioning
- Focuses on complex behaviors learned through trial and error
- Humans actively explore their environment and observe consequences
- Research focus:
- Distinguishing relevant stimuli
- Surprise and expectation
- Memory and past experiences
- Types of reinforcement
Correlational Research
- Types of correlations:
- Positive correlation: one variable increases, the other variable tends to increase
- Negative correlation: one variable increases, the other variable tends to decrease
- No correlation: no statistically significant relationship between variables
- Strengths of correlational research:
- Feasible: easier and less expensive to conduct compared to experiments
- Confounding variable:
- Ways to address: randomized controlled trials, statistical control, and being mindful during study design
- Example: studying the effect of studying time on test scores, with prior knowledge of the subject as a confounding variable
The Low Correlation
- Restriction of range: a problem that can occur in correlation analysis when the range of values for one or both variables is limited
- Types of restriction:
- Direct restriction: selection process directly affects the variable of interest
- Indirect restriction: selection process affects a different variable that's correlated with the variable of interest
- Example: a gym wants to see if there's a link between age and gym attendance, but the data is limited to current members, which may not represent the entire population
Variables in Experimental Research
- Independent variables: variables that are intentionally manipulated by the researcher
- Dependent variables: variables that are measured in response to the independent variable
- Null result: no statistically significant difference is observed, but the effect might still be there
- Negative result: the data shows a statistically significant difference, but in the opposite direction of what was predicted
- Indicators of stability: test-retest reliability, internal consistency, and others
Floor and Ceiling Effects
- Floor effect: when a large proportion of participants score the lowest possible score, making it difficult to observe any improvement
- Ceiling effect: when a large proportion of participants score the highest possible score, making it difficult to observe any decline
- Examples: exercise program and muscle strength, sleep medication and alertness
Control Variable
- A factor that is held constant throughout the experiment to minimize its influence on the results
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Description
Explore naturalistic observation, a qualitative research method used to study behavior in natural habitats, commonly used in zoology, anthropology, psychology, and sociology.