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Questions and Answers
Match the following respiratory system processes with their descriptions:
Pulmonary ventilation = Air in and out of lungs External respiration = Gas exchange between lungs and blood Transport = Transportation of O2 & CO2 Internal respiration = Gas exchange between blood and tissues
Match the following respiratory system organs with their functions:
Nose = When we inhale, air moistens and warms Pharynx = Includes the nasopharynx (nose area), oropharynx (mouth area), and laryngopharynx (lower throat area) Lungs = Respiratory zone where gas exchange happens Alveoli = Part of the respiratory zone, where gas exchange happens
Match the following respiratory system muscles with their descriptions:
Diaphragm = Involved in the process of pulmonary ventilation External intercostal muscles = Assist in expanding the thoracic cavity during inhalation Internal intercostal muscles = Assist in compressing the thoracic cavity during exhalation Smooth muscle = Present in the bronchioles
Match the following respiratory structures with their corresponding types of epithelium:
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Match the following respiratory volumes with their definitions:
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Match the following respiratory processes with their corresponding pressure changes:
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Match the following cells in the alveoli with their characteristics:
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Match the following organs with their key features:
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Match the following digestive processes with their definitions:
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Match the following sphincters with their control:
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Match the following phases of gastric secretion with their descriptions:
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Match the following gas laws with their descriptions:
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Match the following terms related to gas exchange with their definitions:
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Match the following equations with the correct gas exchange process:
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Match the following factors with their effects on the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen:
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Match the following respiratory terms with their correct descriptions:
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Match the following parts of the digestive system with their correct descriptions:
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Match the following stomach cells with their correct secretions:
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Match the following small intestine structures with their correct descriptions:
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Match the following respiratory control components with their descriptions:
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Match the following effects with their definitions:
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Match the following chemical reactions with their descriptions:
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Match the following components with their roles in respiration:
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Match the following parts of the digestive system with their functions:
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Match the following types of control with their descriptions:
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Match the following types of reflexes with their functions:
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Match the following hormones with their roles in the digestive system:
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Match the following gastrointestinal hormones with their functions:
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Match the following organs with their functions:
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Match the following regulation mechanisms with their descriptions:
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Match the following hormones with their stimulants:
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True or false: The respiratory system consists of four separate processes.
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True or false: External respiration occurs between the lungs and the blood.
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True or false: The nose functions to moisten and warm the air we inhale.
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True or false: The oropharynx is lined with stratified squamous epithelium.
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True or false: The larynx is responsible for producing vocal sounds.
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True or false: The trachea is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.
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True or false: Boyle's law states that pressure and volume of gas are directly proportional.
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Peripheral chemoreceptors sense changes in pCO2 and pH, but not pO2.
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Hyperventilation assists in flushing CO2 out of the body.
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Hypoventilation occurs in response to respiratory acidosis.
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The pharynx is a common passageway for food and air.
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True or false: Dalton's Law states that the total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure of the individual gases?
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True or false: CO2 is 20 times more soluble than Oxygen according to Henry's Law?
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True or false: Tissue surface area and tissue thickness affect the rate of gas diffusion according to Fick's Law?
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True or false: Vasoconstriction occurs when alveolar CO2 is high and O2 is low?
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True or false: Carbonic acid is split into H2O and CO2 in the alveoli.
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True or false: Removing O2 from Hemoglobin increases the ability of hemoglobin to pick up CO2.
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True or false: As more CO2 enters the blood, more O2 dissociates with hemoglobin at the tissue level.
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True or false: The Medullary Respiratory DRG sets the basic breathing rate.
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True or false: The release of gastrin stimulates the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen.
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True or false: Secretin stimulates the production of NaHCO3 by the pancreas.
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True or false: CCK inhibits gastric motility and secretion.
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True or false: Bile salts emulsify fat and facilitate fat absorption.
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True or false: The liver has four lobes: left, right, caudate, and quadrate.
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True or false: The common bile duct is formed by the merging of the common hepatic duct and the cystic duct.
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True or false: The large intestine has four areas: ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid.
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True or false: The rectum is located in the superior half of the sacrum.
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True or false: The main function of the large intestine is to absorb water and electrolytes.
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True or false: The rectal walls contract when they are distended, leading to defecation.
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True or false: The enteric nervous system is the largest unit of the peripheral nervous system and controls GI tract motility.
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True or false: Extrinsic control of the digestive system is influenced by the autonomic nervous system and GI hormones.
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Study Notes
Respiratory System
- The respiratory system consists of four separate processes: pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport, and internal respiration.
Organs Involved
- Nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, and alveoli
- Muscles involved: diaphragm, external and internal intercostal muscles, and smooth muscle
Conducting Zone
- Nose to terminal bronchioles
- 23 series of branching in bronchioles
Respiratory Zone
- Surface area in lungs where gas exchange happens (respiratory bronchioles to alveoli)
Nose
- Functions:
- Deflects particulate to mucus surfaces
- Houses nasal conchae (superior, middle, and inferior)
- Houses nasal meatuses (grooves under each concha) to increase turbulence and surface area
- Nasopharynx:
- Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium (respiratory mucosa)
- Used to move mucus
- Has some goblet cells
- Cilia used to filter air and move contaminants to the back to be swallowed
Pharynx
- Includes:
- Nasopharynx (nose area)
- Oropharynx (mouth area)
- Laryngopharynx (lower throat area)
- Mucosal lining changes along the length of the pharynx
- Oropharynx: stratified squamous epithelium
- Palatine and lingual tonsils
- Laryngopharynx: stratified squamous epithelium
- Passageway for food and air
Larynx
- Produces vocal sounds via vocal folds/cords
- The connection between the pharynx and the trachea
- Upper half: stratified squamous epithelium
- Lower half: pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- Three big cartilages: thyroid cartilage (Adam's apple), epiglottis, and cricoid
Trachea
- Descends into the mediastinum
- Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- Carina: marks the division of the trachea into two primary bronchi
Bronchial Tree
- Primary, secondary, tertiary, and bronchioles
- Bronchi: simple columnar epithelium
- Bronchioles and terminal bronchioles: simple cuboidal epithelium
- Smooth muscle in bronchioles allows for widening when sympathetically stimulated and constricting under parasympathetic stimulation
Lungs
- Anatomy: left has 2 lobes, right has 3 lobes
- Cardiac notch: heart
- Pleurae: parietal pleura and visceral pleura
- Respiratory bronchioles: between terminal bronchioles and alveolar ducts
- Alveolar sacs: clusters of alveoli
- Alveoli: respiratory membrane made up of alveolar and capillary walls + their basal lamina (alveolar epithelium -> fused basement membrane -> capillary endothelium)
- Type 1 cells: simple squamous
- Type 2 cells: simple cuboidal
- Secrete a surfactant to prevent attraction of liquid molecules/reduce surface tension
- Surrounded by elastic fibers
- Have alveolar pores
Pulmonary Ventilation
- Physical air in and out of the lungs
- Lung volume changes during inspiration and exhalation
- Causes pressure change, which allows for gases to flow across the membrane to equalize pressure
External Respiration
- Gas exchange between the lungs and the environment
- Based on partial pressure gradients and gas solubility
- Alveolar ventilation and pulmonary perfusion
- Respiratory membrane structure
Dalton's Law
- Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressure of the individual gases
- Partial pressure: the pressure of an individual gas from a mixture of gases
Henry's Law
- The more pressure you exert on a gas over a solution/liquid, the more the gas will dissolve proportionately into the liquid to its own partial pressure
- The amount also depends on how soluble the gas is
Fick's Law
- Law of diffusion
- Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:
- Tissue surface area
- Tissue thickness
- Diffusion coefficient of the gas
- ΔP (difference in partial pressure)
Internal Respiration
- Gas exchange between the blood and body tissues
Transport of Oxygen
- Hemoglobin: 98% saturated (never higher) if healthy
- 2% dissolved in plasma
- Males: 201 ml O2/Liter
- Females: 174 ml O2/Liter
- A saturated hemoglobin: all four heme groups have an O2 molecule
- Partially saturated: 1-3 heme groups have an O2 molecule
- Rate of hemoglobin binding and releasing O2 affected by:
- pO2 (partial pressure of O2)
- pCO2 (partial pressure of CO2)
- Temperature
- Blood pH (H+)
- DPG (2,3-bisphosphoglycerate)
- Hemoglobin saturation curve: normal curve, pO2 40mmHg = 75% saturation, pO2 100mmHg = 98% saturation
Transport of Carbon Dioxide
- Transported in the blood via:
- Dissolved in plasma (7-10%)
- Bound to hemoglobin (20%)
- Bicarbonate in plasma (most - 70%)
- CO2 diffuses into RBCs and combines with water to form carbonic acid, which dissociates to hydrogen and bicarbonate ions
- Chloride shift: bicarbonate quickly diffuses out of the RBC and into the plasma, and chloride ions move into the RBC for balance
Control of Respiration
- Medullary Respiratory DRG (Dorsal Respiratory Group)
- Sets basic breathing rate
- Controls muscles of inspiration and stops neural impulses during exhalation
- VRG (Ventral Respiratory Group)
- Involved in forced breathing (inspiration and expiration)
- DRG and VRG use phrenic and intercostal nerves to communicate actions (efferent pathway)
- Pontine Respiratory Group: smooths breathing
Central Chemoreceptors
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Chemoreceptors in the medulla monitor levels of pCO2 in the CNS
-
Signal to make sure enough pH isn't too much
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Rise of pCO2: the original stimulus, but the rate of breathing is actually dependent on the H+ ion concentration in the cerebrospinal fluid
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H+ and CO2 bind to the central chemoreceptor on the medulla, which then sends a signal to the respiratory control center
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Drop in pH results in pulmonary respiration### Intestinal Phase
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Partially digested food enters the duodenum, releasing hormones that control the rate of gastric emptying
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The presence of partially digested food, distension of the duodenum, low pH, and fatty, acidic, or hypertonic chyme inhibit gastric emptying
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Irritants in the duodenum also inhibit gastric emptying
Regulation of HCl Secretion
- HCl is stimulated by ACh, histamine, and gastrin through a G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) 2nd-messenger system
- HCl is low if only one ligand binds to parietal cells
- HCl is high if all three ligands bind to parietal cells
Regulation of Gastric Emptying
- Gastric emptying is controlled by the enterogastric reflex and enterogastrone (hormonal mechanism)
- The enterogastric reflex inhibits gastric emptying in response to distension of the duodenum
- Hormonal mechanisms (enterogastrone) involve the secretion of hormones into the bloodstream to stop gastric emptying
- Carbohydrate-rich foods move quickly through the duodenum, while fat-rich foods are digested more slowly in the stomach
Gastrointestinal Hormones
- Gastrin is stimulated by protein and functions to increase HCl and pepsinogen secretion, enhance gastric motility, and help maintain the digestive tract lining
- Gastrin is inhibited by the accumulation of acid
- Secretin is stimulated by the presence of acid in the duodenum and functions to stimulate pancreatic duct cells to produce NaHCO3, stimulate the liver to produce NaCO3-rich bile, inhibit gastric emptying, and inhibit gastric secretion
- Secretin is also trophic to the exocrine pancreatic glands
- CCK (cholecystokinin) functions to inhibit gastric motility and secretion, stimulate pancreatic acinar cells to secrete pancreatic enzymes, and contract the gallbladder
- GIP (glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide) functions to stimulate insulin release, inhibit gastric activity, and inhibit gastric secretion
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
- Preliminary digestion of proteins and carbohydrates occurs in the stomach
- Very little nutrient absorption occurs in the stomach, except for lipid-soluble drugs like alcohol
Small Intestine
- The glands of the duodenum function to moisten chyme, buffer acids, and maintain digestive material in solution
- Hormones secreted in the small intestine include secretin, CCK, and GIP
Liver
- The liver is composed of hepatocytes that produce bile, process blood-borne nutrients, store fat-soluble vitamins, and detoxify
- Bile is a yellow-green alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, and electrolytes
- Bile salts are cholesterol that emulsify fat and facilitate fat and cholesterol absorption
Regulation of Bile Release
- Fatty and acidic chyme signals the duodenum to secrete CCK and secretin
- Secretin and bile salts stimulate the liver to produce more bile
- CCK stimulates the vagus nerve, causing gallbladder contraction
- The hepatopancreatic sphincter relaxes, allowing bile to be released into the duodenum
Gallbladder
- The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its water and ions
- The gallbladder releases bile via the cystic duct and bile duct
Pancreas
- The pancreas has endocrine functions, including maintaining blood glucose levels through the release of insulin and glucagon
- The pancreas has exocrine functions, including digestion and secretion of pancreatic juice
- Acini (secretory acinar cells) contain zymogen granules with digestive enzymes
- Pancreatic juice enters the duodenum
Regulation of Pancreatic Secretion
- Secretin and CCK are released when fatty and acidic chyme enters the duodenum
- CCK helps the pancreas secrete enzyme-rich pancreatic juice
- Secretin helps the pancreas secrete bicarbonate-rich pancreatic juice
- Vagal stimulation helps release pancreatic juice
Digestion in the Small Intestine
- When chyme enters the duodenum, proteins and carbohydrates are partially digested, and fat digestion has not started yet
- Mixing starts to occur with the combination of juices
- All nutrient absorption takes place in the small intestine
Control of Motility
- Enteric neurons of the GI tract coordinate intestinal movements
- Cholinergic neurons (from the parasympathetic nervous system) cause contractions and distension
- The gastroileal reflex and gastrin relax the ileocecal sphincter, allowing chyme to move to the large intestine
Large Intestine
- Barely any nutrients are left at this stage, as the rest are digested by bacteria
- Main functions of the large intestine include absorbing water and electrolytes, compacting remaining material to feces, absorbing vitamins produced by bacteria, and storing feces
- Defecation is regulated by distension in the rectal walls, which stimulates contraction of the rectal walls
Regulation of Digestion
- Intrinsic control involves autonomous smooth muscle pacesetter cells, intrinsic nerve plexuses, and sensory receptors
- Mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors detect stimulus, such as stretch, osmolarity, pH, and presence of substrate or end products
- Intrinsic control initiates reflexes that activate or inhibit digestive glands and mix lumen contents
Extrinsic Control
- Extrinsic control arises from outside the GI tract, including the CNS, autonomic nervous system, and GI hormones
- Stimulus from outside the GI tract, such as seeing or smelling food, triggers a response in the CNS, which then sends signals to the local nerve plexus
- The local nerve plexus then creates a response, which is contraction or secretion of smooth muscle or glands
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Description
Test your knowledge on the regulation of HCl secretion in the intestinal phase of the sympathetic nervous system. This quiz covers factors that stimulate or inhibit HCl secretion in the presence of partially digested food, low pH, and various chyme characteristics.