Rational Actor Theories in Criminology

Study Notes

Criminological theories are categorized into four groups: Rational Actor Explanations, Pre-Destined Actor Explanations, Victimised Actor Explanations, and Integrated Explanations.
Classical Criminology posits that crime occurs when the perceived benefits outweigh the costs (pleasure vs. pain).
Key figures in classical criminology include Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, who both advocated for legal and penal reforms to make the criminal justice system more proportionate and rational.
Beccaria argued that all individuals capable of crime, that human behaviour is based on rational calculation about the pleasure or pain of actions, and punishment should be proportionate to the crime.
Contemporary Classicism includes rational choice theories, routine activities theory, and situational crime prevention, highlighting the individual's decision-making process.
Right realism builds upon these contemporary theories, focusing on reducing opportunities for crime and maintaining order by emphasizing punishment instead of considering socio-economic factors in relation to crime.

Neo-classicism revises the free will doctrine by acknowledging that some individuals are less able to exercise free will and act rationally, like those with mental illnesses or children.
It recognizes "mitigating circumstances", such as certain demographics or backgrounds of people to consider during sentencing.
Modern Criminal Justice Systems are frequently based upon neo-classicism, typically employing harsher sentences, consistency, and less flexibility in sentencing.

Interest in classical crime explanations declined in the mid-1800s and subsequently expanded into biological, psychological, and sociological factors around the 1970s to 1980s.
The resurgence of classical explanations is partly due to a renewed interest in economic and social beliefs.
Biological, psychological, and sociological theories are less helpful when addressing the causes of crime.

Rational Choice Theory draws on classicism, arguing that people commit crimes based on the profit-loss/pleasure-pain principle to maximize profit and minimize losses.
Decisions are rational, emphasizing the importance of perceived risk and uncertainty in crime.
The theory involves six propositions:
Crimes are purposive and benefit the offender.
Offenders aim to make the best decisions based on perceived risks and uncertainty
Decisions about crime vary based on the nature of the crime and benefits.
Decisions about involvement in crime differ from decisions about committing crimes.
Decisions about involvement in crime have three stages; initiation, habituation and desistance.
Event decisions consist of a series of choices involving, preparation, target selection, escape, and aftermath.
Crime scripts are step-by-step accounts of decision-making in particular crimes.

Crime rates did not decline with post-war prosperity.
Social changes created new crime opportunities, such as more targets (e.g., cars, high-value electronic devices), and reduced guardianship (e.g., more households left unguarded during the day), and changes in how people live their lives.
Cohen and Felson theorized that crime occurs when three elements converge: motivated offenders, suitable targets, and the absence of capable guardians.
Target selection can depend on four criteria: value, inertia, visibility and access.

Situational crime prevention builds on rational choice and routine activity theories.
It aims to reduce crime opportunities through methods like designing out crime, manipulating environments to make crimes more difficult, such as installing surveillance measures (e.g. CCTV cameras), and removing incentives and excuses (e.g., clear rules and instructions).
Examples include adding car steering locks to prevent thefts and installing hotlines to pizza makers to stop crowds gathering outside the restaurant.

Right Realism emerged in the USA and UK in the 1970s-80s, emphasizing neo-liberal economic beliefs and minimal government intervention in the economy and the political right.
Key thinkers, like Wilson and Kelling, proposed the broken windows theory, suggesting that disorder (e.g., graffiti, noise) creates an environment conducive to more serious crime.
Other figures in Right Realism, such as Charles Murray, focussed on welfare state dependency, lone-parent families and a lack of appropriate male role models as factors contributing to crime.
Right Realism advocates for policies focused on controlling crime, improving policing, implementing strict rules with swift punishments, eradicating incivilities, and reducing welfare dependence.

Assumes everyone will commit crime if opportunity arises.
Inadequate consideration of other factors like biological, psychological, and sociological factors.
Policies may lead to repressive measures, like increased surveillance and restrictions on freedom, disproportionately effecting less privileged groups, such as the poor.